ORLEN GROUP. FUELLING THE FUTURE. ORLEN Upstream Sp. z o.o. ul. Prosta 70 | 00-838 Warszawa Tel.: +48 22 778 02 00 | Fax: +48 22 395 49 69 www.orlenupstream.pl Guide to field trip B8 (25-27 June 2015) Some current sedimentological controversies in the Polish Carpathian flysch Stanisław Leszczyński1, Piotr S. Dziadzio2, Wojciech Nemec3 1Jagiellonian University, Poland (stan.leszczynski@uj.edu.pl), 2Oil and Gas Institute, Poland (dziadzio@inig.pl) 3University of Bergen, Norway (wojtek.nemec@uib.no) Route (Fig. 1): Early evening transfer from Kraków to Gorlice (accommodation), ca. 2.5 hours (133 km), by motorway A4 to the slip road Tarnów Zachód and further south by roads 975, 980 and 977. Excursion route on the first day (26 June) from Gorlice by road 977 to Ciężkowice (stop B8.1), then by roads 977, 979 and 28 to Krosno and further by local road to Odrzykoń (stop B8.2) and to Czarnorzeki (stop B8.3) - with an evening return to Gorlice by roads 991 and 28. Excursion route on the second day from Gorlice to Ropica Górna (stop B8.4) by road 977 and back to the southern suburbs of Gorlice (stop B8.5), with an early evening return to Kraków by the same roads as used for arrival. Introduction to the field trip: The Polish Flysch Carpathians Stanisław Leszczyński Carpathians are the European largest (~1500 km long) mountain range formed during the Alpine orogeny, extending as an arc (Fig. 2A) from the Czech Republic (3%) in the northwest through the Slovakia/Poland borderland (27%) to Hungary (4%), eastwards to Ukraine (11%) and further southwards to Romania (53%). As a classic colli- sional orogen, the Polish Carpathians show the complex tectonic structure and tectonostratigraphy of a fold-and- Fig. 1. Route map of field trip B8. Leszczyński, S., Dziadzio, P. S. & Nemec, W., 2015. Some current sedimentological controversies in the Polish Carpathian flysch. In: G. Haczewski (ed.) Guidebook for field trips accompanying 31st IAS Meeting of Sedimentology held in Kraków on 22nd—25,h of June 2015. Polish Geological Society, Kraków, pp. 247—287. Guidebook is available online at www.ing.uj.edu.pl/ims2015 ©®®@ Polskie Towarzystwo Geologiczne 2015, ISBN 978-83-942304-0-1 B8 — Sedimentological controversies in the Polish Carpathian flysch thrust belt with a general northern vergence. The whole northern, external part of the orogen extending through southernmost Poland (~300 km long and up to 80 km wide) - known as the Outer Carpathians (Figs 2, 3) - is a Cenozoic accretionary prism composed of flysch depos- its (sensu Studer, 1827; Dżułyński and Smith, 1964), and hence is referred to also as the Flysch Carpathians. The inner part of the orogen, of which only a small part crops out in Poland (Fig. 2), consists of Palaeozoic crystalline rocks and their post-Carboniferous (mainly Mesozoic to Palaeogene) deformed sedimentary cover. The flysch deposits of the Outer Carpathians are up to 6000 m thick, comprising various turbiditic successions of Tithonian to Miocene age (Fig. 4). They are thought to have accumu- lated on a thin-stretched continental crust of the European Platform’s original passive margin in an array of narrow deep-water basins, which were separated by sediment- supplying subaqueous to subaeral ridges referred to as cordilleras and which continued to accumulate sedi- ment during the subsequent active-margin conditions of subduction to collision in the late Cretaceous-Palaeogene time (Książkiewicz, 1956, 1975). The main flysch sub- basins are now represented by the individual nappes of the Outer Carpathians (Figs 2, 3), in their south to north stacking order: the Magura, Sub-Magura/Dukla, Silesian, Sub-Silesian and Skole nappes. The thin-skinned nappes and intra-nappe imbricate thrust-sheets were tectonically stacked in the late Oligocene to early Miocene by being piled up northwards onto the Miocene foreland basin at the flexural margin of the European Platform (Fig. 3). The development of the flysch basins and cordilleras was prob- ably diachronous, as was also their subsequent tectonic stacking as nappes, whereby the exact palaeogeographic evolution of the Outer Carpathians remains to be disputed. Extensive geological investigations of the Polish Flysch Carpathians commenced in the second half Fig. 2. (A) Regional location of the field-trip area within the Outer Carpathian flysch belt and (B) the area geological map (based on Geologi- cal Map of Poland 1:500 000) with the location of main stops. Note that the stops B8.1-3 and B8.5 are in the Silesian Nappe and stop B8.4 is in the Magura Nappe. 248 31st IAS Meeting of Sedimentology Kraków 2015 Fig. 3. Geological cross-section through the Polish Carpathians along the S-N traverse Zakopane- Kraków (based on Birkenmajer, 1985). of the 19th century in connection with the increased demand for hydrocarbons. Detailed sedimentologi- cal studies were inspired by the birth of the concept of turbidity current (Kuenen and Migliorini, 1950), as this explanation for the origin of deep-water graded sand- stone beds coincided with similar working notions of one of the region’s leading investigators - Professor M. Książkiewicz at the Jagiellonian University (e.g., see Książkiewicz, 1948). This is how the so-called ‘Kraków School of Flysch Sedimentology’ came to life in the 1950s and reached the climax of its prolific activity in the 1960s to 1970s. Inspired by M. Książkiewicz, this informal group of researchers included his most talented disci- ples: S. Dżułyński, A. Radomski, L. Koszarski, K. Żytko, A. Ślączka, R. Unrug, F. Simpson, J. M. Anketell and many others. Their diligent studies provided new data on the varied sedimentary characteristics of turbidites with suggestions as to their possible origin, including most notably the world’s first atlas of flysch lithofacies maps (Książkiewicz, 1962), a comprehensive genetic review and classification of bed solemarks (Dżułyński and Walton, 1965), a pioneering bathymetric interpretation of flysch successions (Książkiewicz, 1975), and a bench- mark description of flysch trace fossils and their distribu- tion in sediment successions (Książkiewicz, 1977). One of the key early discoveries in the Polish Flysch Carpathians was the observation that some of the turbiditic successions consist of sandstone and fine- grained conglomeratic beds whose features cannot be readily explained by Kuenen’s original concept of sedi- ment gradual settling from turbulent suspension current. Such abnormal turbidites in the Carpathian flysch were demonstrated to Kuenen by Książkiewicz and Dżułyński during their historical field trip in 1957 and were swiftly mentioned as ‘fluxoturbidites’ in Kuenen’s (1958) next paper, with the term presumably meant to denote fluxes of excessively dense flow within a fully turbulent suspen- sion current. This new term was retained and more elab- orately defined by Dżułyński et al. (1959). The first day of the present field excursion is focused on such deposits, exemplified by the early Eocene Ciężkowice Sandstone of the Silesian Nappe (Fig. 4), to honour this early pioneer- ing recognition of flows termed later ‘high-density’ turbidity currents by Lowe (1982) and to compare these deposits with the more recent turbiditic models. Two other issues are the topic for the second day of the excursion in the Carpathian flysch. One issue pertains to the Glauconitic Magura Beds (late Eocene-early Oligocene, Fig. 4) of the Magura Nappe, where turbidites composed of shelf-derived glauconite-bearing sand tend to be overlain by thick, non-bioturbated dark-grey mudshale capped with a thin, bioturbated greenish-grey mudshale. Can this be evidence of an en-masse emplace- ment of thick, dense co-turbiditic fluidal mud suspen- sion (Baas et al., 2009) or ‘linked’ mudflow (Haughton et al., 2009), followed by a slow fallout of hemipelagic ‘background’ mud? The other controversial issue is the origin of the early Oligocene Magdalena Sandstone of the 249 B8 — Sedimentological controversies in the Polish Carpathian flysch Fig. 4. Lithostratigraphic scheme for the Jurassic-Miocene rock successions of the Polish Outer Carpathians. Modified from Koszarski (1985) and Oszczypko (2004). Note the stratigraphic location of the Ciężkowice Sandstone (field-trip stops B8.1-3), Magura Beds (stop B8.4) and Magdalena Sandstone (stop B8.5). 250 31st IAS Meeting of Sedimentology Kraków 2015 Silesian Nappe (Fig. 4) near Gorlice: a coarsening-upwards succession (nearly 200 m thick) underlain and overlain by deep-marine flysch, showing heterolithic lenticular and wavy bedding, occasional hummock-like and wave-ripple- like structures and a mouth bar-type bedding architecture towards the top. Can this be an evidence of relatively shal- low water and a prograding delta? Field-trip topic 1: How do the classic 'fluxoturbidites' compare with the latest turbiditic models? Stanisław Leszczyński, Wojciech Nemec What are fluxoturbidites? Until the mid-20th century, sedimentation in deep seas was considered to be almost exclusively pelagic and hemipelagic, with possible sediment mass-transport processes - such as mud slides, slumps and vaguely defined sediment flows - on submarine slopes. Mean- while, oceanographic data had increasingly indicated deep-water sand dispersal over large areas, and similar evidence of laterally extensive graded sandstone beds came from the successions of ancient deep-marine deposits referred to broadly as flysch (Studer, 1827). ^is dual evidence, combined with laboratory experiments, had led Kuenen and Migliorini (1950) to the recognition of turbidity currents: sand-laden subaqueous density flows with their sediment load carried in, and gradation- ally settling from, a fully mixed turbulent suspension. However, the concurrent meticulous studies of the Polish Carpathian flysch had revealed several turbiditic succes- sions - such as the lower Lgota Sandstone (Albian), Isteb- na Sandstone (Santonian- Palaeocene) and Ciężkowice Sandstone (early Eocene) (Fig. 4) - where deposits were not quite compatible with the original concept of sedi- ment fallout from a fully turbulent density current. For historical reasons, it is worth citing here the original perception of such deposits and notion of their possible origin (Dżułyński et al., 1959, p. 1114): ‘A different type of sedimentation is encountered amidst normal turbidites in many places. In this type the grain size is large and the beds tend to be less muddy. ^e bedding is thick and rather irregu- lar, and the shales between are silty to sandy and thin or even absent. Current sole markings are scarce, load casting is more common, and coarse current bedding of somewhat variable direction is encountered. Indications of slumping are found, and grading is absent, repetitive, irregular, or even inverted, and irregular lenses of coarser grain occur inside the beds. ^ese sandstones may occur as large lenses between normal flysch or shales. In other cases the material or the direction of supply contrast with those of the normal surrounding flysch of the same age. Because characteristics of deposition from turbidity currents appear to be mixed with evidence for sliding, we prefer to call this kind of bed a ‘fluxoturbidite’. ‘We suggest that the cause for this abnormal type of flysch can be either a deepening of the basin and steepening of the slope, or a quickening of the supply, or a change in position of the supply, for instance the building of a new delta. But whatever the cause, the mode of transportation has changed. Instead of a well-mixed turbulent turbidity current carrying almost the entire load in suspen- sion, one can imagine a turbidity current in which most of the sand and gravel moves in a watery slide along the base. ^e current is too poor in clay to raise this load in suspension, and the slope is too steep for the load to come to rest until it has spread out in a layer.’ ^e first detailed documentation of the sedimentary textures and structures of such deposits was given by Unrug (1963) from the Istebna Beds (Fig. 4). His descrip- tive summary said: ‘Fluxoturbidite deposits are characterised by lenticular shapes of beds, coarseness of detrital material, great thickness of beds, low pelite content, prevalence of symmetrical, multiple and discontinuous grad- ing over other types of bedding and occurrence of non-graded beds, traces of strong erosion, lack of sole markings, and poor development of pelitic sediments. Occurrence of armored shale balls arranged in regular layers parallel to the bedding planes within sandstone beds points out to the transition of sand flows into turbidity currents.’ ^e author referred to the depositional process of fluxoturbidites vaguely as a ‘sand flow’ and considered it to be a type of mass movement ‘intermediate’ between a slump and a turbidity current. Fig. 5. Model of a complete fluxoturbidite according to Ślączka and Tompson (1981). 251 B8 — Sedimentological controversies in the Polish Carpathian flysch Another synthesis of fluxoturbidite characteristics came from Ślączka and Tompson (1981), based on field observations from selected outcrops of the lower Istebna Beds, the Ciężkowice Sandstone and the late Oligocene Krosno Beds (Fig. 4). ^eir model of a fluxoturbidite deposit (Fig. 5) shows a mainly massive bed of poorly sorted sand and invokes both the possible multitude of grain-support mechanisms in a sedimentgravity flow (Middleton and Hampton, 1973, 1976; Middleton and Southard, 1977) and the Bouma (1962) turbidite divi- sions as a capping. Fluxoturbidite was suggested to be ‘a product of a composite sedimentgravity flow, with a gravity grain flow (or related type) in the lower part and a turbidity flow in the upper part.’ Evidence of slumping was said to be unclear. Instead, a liquified flow (sensu Lowe, 1979) was implied as a possible initiation Fig. 7. Models of the deposits of high-density turbidity currents according to Lowe (1982), showing ideal beds of a gravelly (A) and a sandy high-density turbidity current (B) and a composite bed produced by a multi-surge high-density turbidity current (C). mechanism and main component process for the depo- sition of fluxoturbidites. A similar interpretation of fluxoturbidites was given by Leszczyński (1981, 1986, 1989) from a detailed study of the Ciężkowice Sandstone. ^e deposits showed thick and highly uneven, non-tabular bedding; common erosional amalgamation of beds, with only local separa- tion by relic thin silty or sandy mudshale; poorly devel- oped internal normal grading; massive (non-stratified) internal structure or horizontal to variously inclined parallel stratification, yet with surprisingly thick (2-5 cm) strata; and common diffuse lateral transitions from strat- ified to massive deposit within a single bed. ^e models of complete (nontruncated) fluxoturbidite beds (Fig. 6) were attributed to subaqueous high-density bipartite, or two-phase, flows similar to those defined as ‘high-densi- ty turbidity currents’ by Lowe (1982) (Fig. 7), but with a greater emphasis on the role of liquefied flow and cohe- sionless debris flow as depositional process components. ^e abundant composite beds were attributed to the amalgamation of successive flow deposits or deposition from multi-surge long-duration flows. Allaby and Allaby (1999) in their dictionary defined fluxoturbidite vaguely as ‘the product of gravity-induced flow in which little turbulent mixing of particles occurs [and which] is transitional between a slump and a turbid- ity flow.’ Such a transitional flow would expectedly be a debris flow (see Middleton and Southard, 1977). Indeed, the deposits of the Istebna Beds originally regarded as flux- oturbidites (Dżułyński et al., 1959; Unrug, 1963; Ślączka and Tompson, 1981) have more recently been interpreted by Strzeboński (2014) as the products of non-cohesive to cohesive sand-gravelly submarine debris flows. Not surprisingly, the convoluted definition of fluxo- turbidites and their somewhat ambiguously inferred mode of deposition have gained little general acceptance. Although many geologists in the Polish Carpathians and elsewhere found it to be a useful label for the flysch facies variety of non-classical turbidites (e.g., Stanley and Unrug, 1972; Schlager and Schlager, 1973) and the term was included in Carter’s (1975) early classification of submarine sediment mass-transport processes, several other prominent authors had openly postulated that this term should be abandoned (e.g., Walker, 1967; Hsu, 1989; Shanmugam, 2006) - yet failing to recognize its signifi- cance as a genuine precursor of the Lowe (1982) concept ABC Fig. 6. Models of complete fluxoturbidites according to Leszczyński (1989), showing their (A) conglomeratic, (B) pebbly-sandstone and (C) sandstone bed varieties and their internal divisions. 252 31st IAS Meeting of Sedimentology Kraków 2015 Fig. 8. Interpreted areal distribution of the Ciężkowice Sandstone, Variegated Shales and Hieroglyphic Beds in the latest Paleocene - early Eocene Eocene of the Silesian Basin (modified from Leszczyński, 1986); for lithostratigraphy, see Silesian Nappe in Fig. 4. Fig. 9 General characteristics of the Ciężkowice Sandstone. (A) Rock tors showing amalgamated thick sandstone beds; nature reserve ‘Prządki’ (stop B8.3). (B) Amalgamated beds of sandstone and granule conglomerate, with the bedding more recognizable to the right; tor ‘Grunwald’ in the nature reserve ‘Skamieniałe Miasto’ (stop B8.1). (C) Massive and parallel stratified/banded pebbly sandstone and fine-peb- ble conglomerate, with the conglomerate layers often lenticular and showing inverse to normal grading; rock tor under the northern wall of the Kamieniec Castle (stop B8.2). (D) Freshly exposed section of a thick composite unit of amalgamated sandstone beds; quarry in Ostrusza village, SE of Ciężkowice. 253 B8 — Sedimentological controversies in the Polish Carpathian flysch of ‘high-density turbidity currents’. Some geologists, not only in the Flysch Carpathians, are still using this term nowadays, although not always correctly realizing its original intended meaning (e.g., Huang et al., 2012). Fluxoturbidites of the Ciężkowice Sandstone The Ciężkowice Sandstone (latest Palaeocene-early Eocene; Fig. 4) is a sand-dominated lithostratigraphic unit, up to 350 m thick, occurring mainly in the south- ern to middle part of the Silesian Nappe (Fig. 8). It is one of the nappe’s main petroleum-producing units. The unit consists of thick-bedded (mainly 1-4 m), coarse-grained sandstones and granule/fine-pebble orthoconglomerates (Fig. 9) with rare thin interbeds of fine-grained sandstones and silty/sandy mudstones. Sandstones are quartzose to subfeldspathic arenites, subordinately low-grade wackes (Leszczyński, 1981). The coarse-grained beds have sharp, erosional and often loaded bases (Fig. 10), are lenticular in flow-transverse sections and occur as isolated or verti- cally stacked bodies (bed packages up to >50 m thick) within the succession of Variegated Shales (Fig. 4). Beds are mainly non-graded to normal-graded and massive to parallel stratified (Figs 9D, 11), although the strata are often ‘stepped’, diffuse and unusually thick (Fig. 11). The thickest beds also show inclined stratification mantling massive sand bodies (Fig. 12), trough-shaped scour-and- fill cross-stratification (Fig. 13A, B) and local internal slumps or rotational slides related to substrate re-scour- ing. Locally present are sets of tensile wing/horestail fractures (Fig. 13C, D), occasionally misinterpreted as Fig. 10. Variable bed boundaries in the Ciężkowice Sandstone. (A) Beds separated by erosional flat surfaces (dashed lines); rock tor ‘Warownia Górna’ in the nature reserve ‘Skamieniałe Miasto’ (stop B8.1). (B) Highly uneven, loaded erosional contact of fluxoturbidite beds with a large load-flame of sand; detail from rock tor ‘Warownia Dolna’ in the nature reserve ‘Skamieniałe Miasto’ (stop B8.1). Fig. 11. Variable development of parallel stratification in sandstone beds. (A) Diffuse banding and spaced parallel stratification (seen as rock surface ribs), slightly undulating; detail from a rock tor in the nature reserve ‘Prządki’ (stop B8.3). (B) Amalgamated normal-graded sand- stone beds, each showing thick banding with spaced parallel stratification and a massive upper part; detail from rock tor at point 3, stop B8.2. 254 31st IAS Meeting of Sedimentology Kraków 2015 cross-stratification (e.g., Ślączka and Thompson, 1981; gravel pockets (Fig. 14). Characteristic are short-distance Dziadzio et al., 2006). Some beds show isolated scour-fill lateral transitions from parallel stratified or shear-band- Fig. 12. Cross-stratification in sandstone beds. (A) Scour-fill cross-stratification with weak grain-size segregation (see above the upper thick dashed line); detail from rock tor ‘Grunwald’ in the nature reserve ‘Skamieniałe Miasto’ (stop B8.1). (B) Granule sandstone with planar cross-stratification (above the thick dashed line) scoured to the right and overlain by a massive wedge of granule sandstone mantled with crossstratification; rock tor detail from the nature reserve ‘Prządki’ (stop 8.3). Fig. 13. Pseudo-stratification in sandstone beds. (A) Steep shear-banding resembling scour-fill crossstratification; detail from rock tor ‘Ratusz’ in the nature reserve ‘Skamieniałe Miasto’ (stop B8.1). (B) A similar shear-banding in rock tor “Orzeł” in the same reserve (stop B8.1). (C) Sets of wing or horsetail tensile fractures resembling trough cross-stratification; the walking stick (scale) is 1.1 m; from rock tor ‘Ratusz’ in the same reserve (stop B8.1). (D) Similar steep tensile fracturing resembling crossstratification (arrows); the walking stick (scale) is 1.1 m; from rock tor ‘Czarownica’ in the same reserve (stop B8.1). 255 B8 — Sedimentological controversies in the Polish Carpathian flysch ed to massive deposit (Fig. 15). Five main fluxoturbidite facies can be distinguished (Appendix Table 1, Fig. 16). They alternate with one another in amalgamated bed packages, and one facies commonly passes laterally into another within a single bed. Benthic foraminifers in the ‘background’ Variegated Shales represent the Recurvoides assemblage of Haig (1979), indicating a bathyal water depth (Olszewska & Malata, 2006). The overlying thin-bedded flysch of the Hieroglyphic Beds, also locally intercalated with the Variegated Shales (Fig. 4), may possibly be almost abyssal (Waśkowska and Cieszkowski, 2014). The depositional setting of the Ciężkowice Sandstone was interpreted as a submarine fan system with channels and small depositional lobes (Leszczyński, 1981), and Fig. 14. Graded sandstone with scour-fill gravel pockets, pass- ing upwards into planar parallel- stratified sandstone overlain by a graded pebble conglomerate with load-casted base. Outcrop detail from the old quarry in Kąśna Dolna, 3 km west of Ciężkowice. was considered to be a basin-floor fan related to a second- order eustatic lowstand (Dziadzio et al., 2006). The strati- graphic alternation of sandstone- and shale-dominated deposits was attributed to third-order eustatic cycles (Dziadzio et al., 2006). Spatial sand distribution (Fig. 8) indicates main sediment supply from both the south and north, with palaeocurrent directions towards the SE and E and locally to the NE. According to Enfield et al. (2001a, b) and Watkinson et al. (2001), the bodies of Ciężkowice Sandstone show spatial thickness changes and uncon- formities suggestive of deposition in half-grabens. A similar interpretation of seismic images was given by Dziadzio et al. (2006), suggesting deposition in a series of fault-bounded basin-floor depressions. The sand-prone turbiditic system would thus appear to have extended eastwards along an array of basin-floor troughs, perhaps active blind-thrust synclines evolving into fault-bounded half-grabens, with possible sediment supply from the inter-trough ridges. The lack of lateral-accretion bedding indicates non-meandering, cut-andfill channels of low to negligible sinuosity, apparently non-leveed, which might support the notion of flow confinement by intra-basinal topographic troughs. Comparison with the latest turbiditic models As shown by their outcrop review, the Polish Carpathi- an ‘fluxoturbidites’ are by no means just a regional curio- sity. Such non-classical turbidites are found in flysch Fig. 15. Short-distance lateral changes in bed structure. (A) Granule sandstone bed with planar parallel stratification and traction-carpet banding passing diffusely into massive deposit to the left (encircled). (B) Stepped sandy parallel stratification vanishing to the left in a banded granule conglomerate. The walking stick (scale) is 1.1 m. Both details are from detached blocks in the nature reserve ‘Skamieniałe Miasto’ (stop B8.1). 256 31st IAS Meeting of Sedimentology Kraków 2015 Fig. 16. Summary of the fluxoturbidite facies of Ciężkowice Sandstone (for description, see review in Appendix Table 1). (A, B) Facies mS: massive, non-graded sandstones with scattered granules/pebbles and local trough-shaped basal scour-fill stratification. (C, D) Facies tlsS: massive to banded or fully banded beds with local basal scour-and-fill features. (E-H) Facies gS: graded non-stratified sandstone or conglomer- ate-sandstone beds. (I-L) Facies gsS: graded-stratified/banded sandstone and conglomerate-sandstone beds. (M, N) Facies Scl: graded sand- stone beds with lenticular gravel pockets and banded upper part. basins worldwide. Similar deposits were included in the early turbiditic facies models (see facies A and B of Mutti and Ricchi Lucchi, 1972, 1975; also Walker and Mutti, 1973) and were depicted as channelized-flow facies in the well-known submarine fan model of Walker (1975). The early notion of a high-concentration bipartite (two- phase) turbidity current, highlighted by Dżułyński and Sanders (1962) and Sanders (1965), found its elaborate reflection in Lowe’s (1982) benchmark concept of high- density turbidity currents (HDTCs). The depositional mechanisms postulated by Lowe (1982) included: a rapid dumping of graded massive sediment directly from turbulent suspension; in situ or mobile sediment liquefac- tion; formation of inverse-graded traction carpets, possi- bly multiple; infilling of syndepositional trough-shaped scours; and a plane- to rippled-bed tractional sediment transport. As pointed out by Leszczyński (1986, 1989), most of the distinctive features of fluxoturbidites could readily be explained by a combination of these various modes of sediment deposition from unsteady or relative- ly steady HDTCs. The few features not shown in Lowe’s (1982) model included bed-scale or localized sediment banding (planar or inclined thick pseudo-stratification, with the sediment layers lacking inverse grading), scour- related local syndepositional sliding, pronounced verti- cal grain-size fluctuations and the short-distance rapid lateral changes in bed internal characteristics. However, it is worth noting that Lowe’s (1982) depo- sitional model for HDTCs was not faultless. Firstly, he unnecessarily restricted the term ‘traction carpet’ - originally meant for a laminar-shear dense basal layer of sediment dragged along by turbidity current (Dżułyński and Sanders, 1962) - to denote solely a shearing sedi- ment layer of fallen grains characterized by inverse grad- ing and deposited by frictional freezing when reaching a maximum mobile thickness (see Hiscott, 1994). Second- ly, he apparently failed to realize that a certain travel time/ distance is required for the inverse grading to develop and that a quickly freezing carpet may thus show little or no such grading, and also that a repetitive pattern of such banded deposition may virtually dominate in a long- duration relatively steady flow. When he later encoun- tered thick banded turbidites composed almost entirely of traction carpets that lacked inverse grading and were 257 B8 — Sedimentological controversies in the Polish Carpathian flysch attributed to a repetitive combined frictional-cohesive freezing (Lowe and Guy, 2000; Lowe et al., 2003), instead of correcting his initial error - he chose rather to refer to such turbidity currents misleadingly as ‘slurry flows’. [The same term was used earlier in Carter’s (1975) mass-flow classification to denote cohesive debris flows.] Various other conceptual models for turbidite deposi- tion have meanwhile proliferated, inspired by the grow- ing evidence from outcrops, well-cores and laboratory experiments. How do the fluxoturbidites relate to these more recent concepts in their historical development? (The following review refers to plates given as appendix illustra- tions in the digital version of this excursion guide.) • Postma et al. (1988) reported on laboratory experiments where a well-stirred turbulent sediment-water mixture, released from a gate onto a steep (25°) subaqueous slope, had rapidly separated itself into a coarse-grained (pebbly sand) lower non-turbulent phase and a finer-grained (sand), faster-flowing upper turbulent phase (see Plate 1A). The lower phase was flowing chiefly due to its own inertia, while being modestly sheared at the top by the overpassing turbulent flow. The lower inertia flow was subject to laminar shear and came to rest by downward frictional freezing, as a common debris flow. Such a bipartition and combined behaviour of an initially turbulent sediment-gravity flow might explain the thick, non-graded massive lower part of some of the fluxoturbidites (Fig. 16). • Vrolijk and Southard (1997) reported on laboratory experiments with fast-flowing sandy subaqueous flows, where the sediment dumped from turbulent suspension kept moving as a ‘mobile bed’ sheared by the overpassing turbulent flow. The mobile bed was freezing upwards as the shear zone was similarly migrating and thinning. The laboratory flows were too thin for recognition of possible shear banding in the deposits, which ranged from non- graded to weakly normal, inverse or inverse-to-normal graded (Plate 1B). Some of the diffusely banded or massive-to-banded and non-graded to weakly graded fluxoturbidites (Fig. 16) might be attributed to this style of deposition. • Some authors (Mulder and Alexander, 2001; Sohn et al., 2002) suggested a transitional phase of ‘hyperconcentrated flow’ in the transformation process of a non-turbulent to fully turbulent subaqueous sediment-gravity flow (Plate 2). The fluxoturbidites with their features would fall into this transitional flow category. Howev- er, the use of the term hyperconcentrated flow was quite odd, as this term was originally introduced in the literature to denote subaerial flows with ‘a behaviour intermediate between that of a common streamflow and that of a mudflow’ (Beverage and Culbertson, 1968; see also review and discussion by Nemec, 2009). Notably, neither a fluvial streamflow nor a mudflow is involved in the subaqueous flow transformations envisaged by Mulder and Alexander (2001) and Sohn et al. (2002). • The early concept of a bipartite two-phase flow derived from the Carpathian fluxoturbidites (Sanders, 1965) and the Lowe (1982) concept of HDTCs were both closely followed in the model of a non-turbulent to fully turbulent flow transformation suggested by Mutti (1992) and Mutti et al. (2003), where fluxoturbidites would correspond to the turbidite facies F3-F5 and F7- F9 (Plate 3A). It was concurrently argued by Shanmugam (1997, 2000, 2002, 2012) that such high-density flows, with a mainly non-tractional mode of deposition, should rather be regarded as sandy debris flows. (As a paraphrase, it was like saying that a snow scooter is not a scooter because it has sleds instead of wheels. However, it is the sleds that define a snow scooter, just like the non-tractional mode of sediment deposition from turbidity current defines Lowe’s HDTC. ) • An opposite way of subaqueous sediment gravity-flow transfor- mation - from a fully turbulent to bipartite laminar-turbulent flow (see earlier Postma et al., 1988) - was suggested by Kane and Ponten (2012), where the fluxoturbidites would again correspond to the ‘transitional flow’ category (Plate 3B). The notion of a turbidity current with a downflow-increasing sediment concentration came from Haughton et al. (2009); see below. • Haughton et al. (2009) distinguished between turbidity currents with a downflow-decreasing and a downflow-increasing sedi- ment concentration (Plate 4A, upper diagram), although this hypothetical notion apparently pertained chiefly to the behaviour of the turbiditic suspension mud cloud - whether diluting and dying out with time/distance or densifying and turning into a ‘linked’ mudflow. The sandy deposits of the transitional ‘hybrid flows’ (Plate 4B) seem to share many features with the fluxotur- didites (Fig. 16). Much less clear is Haughton’s own classification of subaqueous sediment-gravity flows (Plate 4A, lower diagram), with the category of ‘high-density turbidity current’ separated from the Lowe and Guy (2000) ‘slurry flow’ and the enigmatic ‘co-genetic flow’. Several questions arise. First, aren’t the two latter kinds of flow just specific varieties of HDTC (sensu Lowe, 1982)? Second, if a co-genetic flow = hybrid flow = linked mudflow, as the classification implies, then why are so many different terms needed for one and the same thing? And third, how about the co-genetic basal debris flows: a possible relic of parental debris flow that generated the turbidity current (Hampton, 1972), a debris flow spawned by the turbulent current at the outset (Post- ma et al., 1988) or spawned by the current underway due to its deceleration or turbulence-suppressing bulking of substrate sedi- ment (Kane and Ponten, 2012)? • In the most recent classification of subaqueous sediment-gravity flows proposed by Talling et al. (2012), the fluxoturbidites with their features would be categorized as the deposits of HDTCs (sensu Lowe, 1982), possibly with a ‘melted’ core of the parental non-cohesive debris flow or liquefied flow (Plate 5A). The authors pointed to a range of modes of sediment deposition that may result in thick banded or massive beds, with or without grain-size grad- ing (Plate 5B). Depending on the relative rates of bottom shear and grain fallout, the banding may range from common trac- tional plane-bed parallel stratification or ‘stepped’ stratification to rhythmically freezing graded or non-graded traction carpets and to mobile-bed diffuse shear layers. Although some of the detailed notions in the models (Plate 5) may be disputable, they jointly give a stimulating ground for conceptual considerations. 258 31st IAS Meeting of Sedimentology Kraków 2015 In summary, the deposits originally labelled as ‘fluxo- turbidites’ represent laterally non-uniform and highly unsteady to fairly steady, cohesionless high-density and mainly long-duration flows (sustained flows sensu Kneller and Branney, 1995). Deposits with a similar range of tran- sient modes of sedimentation now feature prominently in all the more recent turbiditic models. ^e recognition of fluxoturbidites as a distinct facies in the Polish Carpathian flysch was based also on their regional uniqueness in terms of the high mineralogical and textural maturity and their grain-size coarseness. However, it was probably these very sediment characteristics that also determined the relatively ‘unusual’ mode of sediment transport and deposition. Today, we know that similar coarse-sandy arenitic to grav- elly deposits abound in ancient non-meandering turbiditic channel belts worldwide (e.g., Walker, 1975, 1978; Winn and Dott, 1977; Stanley, 1980; Lowe, 1982; Gosh and Lowe, 1993; Hickson and Lowe, 2002; Janbu et al., 2007). In short, there is nothing specifically ‘Carpathian’ to the classic flux- oturbidites, except for the region of their early first recogni- tion. As a conclusion, it is suggested that the term ‘fluxo- turbidites’ (Dżułyński et al., 1959) - although discarded by the global sedimentological community at the outset and now nearly forgotten - deserves full recognition as an early precursor of the concept of HDTCs (Lowe, 1982). ^ere is also no reason why this term should not be used as a short and informative general facies label in regional studies, as it continues to be used in the Polish Carpathian flysch. Fig. 17. Geological map of the vicinity of nature reserve ‘Skamieniałe Miasto’ (modified from Cieszkowski et al., 1991), showing the location of rock tors to be visited at the excursion stop B8.1 (see text). 259 B8 — Sedimentological controversies in the Polish Carpathian flysch Stop descriptions for topic 1 Leaders: Stanisław Leszczyński, Wojciech Nemec The outcrops at stops B8.1-3 are easily accessible by short (5-10 minutes) uphill walks along touristic foot- paths. The aim of the field excursion on its first day is to demonstrate and discuss the sedimentary characteristics of classical fluxoturbidites, exemplified by the deposits of the Ciężkowice Sandstone, and to compare these depos- its with the more recent turbiditic models published in the sedimentological literature. B8.1 The nature reserve 'Skamieniałe Miasto' The nature reserve ‘Skamieniałe Miasto (Petrified Town)’ is located at the southern outskirts of Ciężkowice (Figs 1, 17). The entrance is free of charge and the reserve has a convenient parking lot with a modest gastronomic facil- ity and with the regulations for visitors displayed. This area in the east-central part of the Silesian Nappe (Figs 2, 8) is considered to be the type locality for the early Eocene Ciężkowice Sandstone (Fig. 4), exposed here as numerous picturesque rock tors scattered in a pine forest. (49°46'36" N, 20°57'50" E) Point 1.1 - The ‘Grunwald’ tor on the eastern side of the main road, to the left of the main entrance to the reserve (Fig. 17). The outcrop shows thick, amalga- mated beds of graded and graded-stratified fine-grained conglomerate to sandstone facies (Fig. 9B). Massive divi- sions are graded or non-graded. Stratification is mainly planar parallel, thick to thin and marked by grain size segregation, with the fine-grained laminae form- ing thin ribs on weathered outcrop surfaces (Fig. 12A). Thin parallel stratification (tractional Bouma bdivision) occurs at the top of some beds. Abundant plant detritus occurs on many strata surfaces. The beds are separated by high-relief scour surfaces. Both planar and cross- stratification with inverse grading are visible in the lower part of the outcrop and in the fallen blocks at its foot. Short-distance lateral change from stratified to massive sandstone and granule conglomerate can be seen in a block on the left side of the tor wall (Fig. 15). Holes after armoured mudballs occur in the basal part of the second bed above the tor foot. Point 1.2 - Tor ‘Warownia Dolna (Lower Watchtow- er)’, ca. 100 m to the north-east of the main entrance to Fig. 18. Outcrop detail from the rock tor ‘Warownia Dolna’ (stop B8.1, Fig. 17). Note the diffuse parallel banding (traction-carpet layering?), the two levels of trough-shaped multiple scour-fill cross- stratification and the loaded conglomerate base near the top. Fig. 19. Amalgamated fluxoturbidites in the north-western wall of ‘Warownia Górna’ tor (stop B8.1, Fig. 17). Note the evidence of substrate re-scouring by consecutive flows or same-flow surges and the graded-stratified beds with both diffusely banded and well- stratified (Bouma b) divisions. 260 31st IAS Meeting of Sedimentology Kraków 2015 the reserve (Fig. 17). The outcrop shows thick amalga- mated beds of graded and graded-stratified fine-grained conglomerate to sandstone facies (Fig. 18), with common massive, graded or non-graded divisions. Stratification is marked by grain-size segregation and planar paral- lel, but includes trough cross-strata sets that may repre- sent small 3D dunes or be scour-and-fill features (see in the middle part of the exposed succession on the tor NW and SE walls). The cross-stratification seems to be related to the reworking of substrate sediment by pulse of highly unsteady current. Bed soles are erosional and show load casts, with a large load-flame of fine-grained sand in the tor’s upper part (Figs 10B, 18). Visible are Fig. 20. Graded-stratified sandstone bed overlain erosionally by a granule/pebbly sandstone bed with fluctuating grain size and diffuse banding imitating cross-stratification; detail from the rock tor ‘Warownia Górna’ (stop B8.1, Fig. 17). also armoured mudballs and holes after their removal by weathering. Point 1.3 - Tor ‘Warownia Górna (Upper Watch- tower)’, ca. 20 m to the south-east of point 1.2 (Fig. 17). The outcrop shows amalgamated thick beds of graded and graded-stratified fine-grained conglomerate to sand- stone facies (Figs 10A, 19, 20). Bed soles are erosional and show load casts. Graded or non-graded massive divisions irregularly alternate with stratified ones. Planar parallel stratification is marked by segregation of sand and gran- ules, grain composition changes and clast alignment (trac- tional Bouma b division). However, there is also evidence of shear-banding in the tor’s SE wall, indicating an early postdepositional remoulding of sediment by laminar shear. Cross-stratification seems to represent scour-and- fill features, with local syndepositional small-scale rota- tional sliding. The irregularity of bed divisions indicates highly unsteady currents. Visible are also armoured mudballs and holes after their removal by weathering. Point 1.4 - Tor ‘Orzeł (Eagle)’ and the adjacent unnamed tor to the south-east, ca. 100 m to the south of point 1.3 (Fig. 17). Both outcrops show the same beds of graded and graded-stratified sandstone facies. Graded or non-graded massive divisions alternate irregularly with stratified ones. Some of the planar parallel strati- fication may be laminar shear-banding. Cross-strati- fication, locally diffuse and unusually steep (Figs 13B, 21), seems to represent scour-and-fill features (slightly deformed by loading) related to the erosive pulses of a highly unsteady current and synsedimentary shearing. Point 1.5 - Tor ‘Czarownica (Witch)’ on the west- ern side of the main road, ca. 200 m to the south of the Fig. 21. Diffuse to distinct, multiple scour-and-fill features within thick fluxoturbidites, indicating consecutive flow surges. Both outcrop details (A, B) are from the ‘Orzeł’ rock tor (stop B8.1). 261 B8 — Sedimentological controversies in the Polish Carpathian flysch main entrance to the reserve (Fig. 17). 'tte outcrop shows beds of graded-stratified and massive coarse-grained another portion of a succession of amalgamated thick sandstones (Figs 13D, 22A). Notable here is the rock frac- Fig. 22. Sandstone tensile fracturing due to an early post-depositional remobilization by gravitational sliding; rock tor ‘Czarownica’ at stop B8.1 (Fig. 17). (A) "tte primary leftwards-inclined parallel stratification in the tor southern wall is both accentuated and obliquely cut by sets of concave-upwards fractures imitating trough cross-stratification. (B) "tte tor western wall shows massive sandstone beds cut by sets of similar concave-upwards fractures imitating trough cross-stratification. Quarry (3) Outcrop points (points 2.1, 2.2, 2.3 & 2.4 in the text) Castle ruins Other symbols as explained in Fig. 17 Fig. 23. Geological map of the vicinities of the Kamieniec Castle (stop B8.2, points 1-4) and the nature reserve ‘Prządki’ (rock tors at stop B8.3). Map modified from Świdziński (1933). 262 31st IAS Meeting of Sedimentology Kraków 2015 turing that imitates scours and geometrically unusual cross-stratification (Fig. 22B), and which is thought to represent differential synsedimentary shearing with tensile wing cracks at the base of a gravitationally sliding package of deposits. Point 1.6 - Tor ‘Ratusz (Town Hall)’ on the west- ern side of main road, half-way between point 5 and the main entrance to the reserve (Fig. 17). ^e outcrop shows a similar or perhaps the same (if unrecognizably faulted) succession of amalgamated thick beds of graded- stratified and massive coarse-grained sandstones (Figs 13A, C). Also here, a fracturing zone imitates scours and geometrically unusual crossstratification, which is thought to represent early synsedimentary shearing with tensile horsetail or wing cracks at the base of a slowly sliding soft-sediment package of deposits. B8.2 The hill of Kamieniec Castle in Odrzykoń (49°44'32" N, 21°47'04" E) ^e rocky hill hosting the ruins of the 14th-century Kamieniec Castle (Figs 1, 23, left) offers another exposure of the fluxoturbidites of the Ciężkowice Sandstone, with both a broad view and details of syndepositional sedi- ment remobilization and deformation features. Point 2.1 - ^e tors at the western foots of the castle hill show amalgamated beds of graded and nongraded, massive to faintly planar-stratified fine-pebbly sandstones. ^e parallel stratification is characterized by thick strata with grain size segregation. Beds on the NE side of the eastern tor show distribution normal grading, low-angle diffuse stratification and syndepositional sediment-remoulding features. ^e inclined stratification suggests a flow- oblique accretion of sediment mantling a ‘frozen’ debris flow or liquefied flow. ^e overlying massive bed of gran- ule conglomerate grades upwards into sandstone and shows basal load casts, with load flames inclined to the south-east. Point 2.2 - Outcrop beneath the NW segment of the castle wall shows pebbly sandstone beds with multiple normal-graded conglomeratic lenses suggest- ing an unusually thick plane-parallel stratification (Fig. 9C). ^is crude layering is attributed to highly unsteady, pulsating (multi-surge) long-duration flows. Point 2.3 - Tor on the eastern side of the castle ruins, near the main road (with a roadside shrine), shows a thick graded-strat- ified bed of granule conglomerate passing upwards into coarse-grained sandstone, with a thick plane-parallel stratification marked by grain size segregation. ^is sediment layering is thought to represent rapid ‘freezing’ of the current’s successive basal layers of laminar flow. Point 2.4 - Tor on the south-eastern side of castle ruins and near the main road, ca. 60 m to the SW of point 2.3, shows erosionally superimposed graded-stratified thick fine-pebbly sandstone beds. ^e parallelstratified sandy upper part of beds shows grain size-segregated, yet unusually thick, layering which may represent syndepo- sitional shear-banding. B8.3 The nature reserve 'Prządki (Spinners)', south of Czarnorzeki (49° 44'32" N, 21°47'59" E) ^e rock tors at this locality (Figs 1, 23, right) expose the same stratigraphic level of the Ciężkowice Sandstone as that seen at the previous stop B8.2. ^e sedimen- tary succession consists of thick amalgamated beds of massive to faintly parallel-stratified fine-pebbly/granule coarse-grained sandstones (Fig. 9A), with laminar shear- banding and scour-fill or mantling cross-stratification recognizable in the southern wall of the highest tor (Fig. 12B). Visible in one of the tors is also synsedimentary fracturing (cf. outcrop points 1.5 and 1.6), here appar- ently superimposed on primary cross-stratification. Field-trip topic 2: Is some thick mud deposited fast and other thin deposited slowly in deep-sea settings? Stanisław Leszczyński, Ewa Malata1, Wojciech Nemec, Wojciech Schnabel1, Sabina Hawryłko1 1Jagiellonian University, Poland Introduction Mud is an immanent component of deep-sea sedi- mentation, supplied as a hemipelagic to pelagic back- ground suspension and derived from episodic sediment- gravity flows, particularly turbidity currents. ^e mode and rate of mud supply and its composition and pattern of intrabasinal dispersal may vary greatly, depending up on the basin internal and external conditions (see Stow 263 B8 — Sedimentological controversies in the Polish Carpathian flysch et al., 1996; Schieber, 1998). Similarly variable may be the mechanism of mud deposition. As pointed out early by Dżułyński et al. (1959), the turbiditic mud suspen- sion is seldom an ideal dispersion of clay or clay/silt particles; instead, it commonly involves various parti- cle aggregates: from faecal pellets and clay floccules to mud clots/crumbs and small chips (see also Potter et al., 2005). ^e traditional deep-sea scenario of a spatially uniform, steady or fluctuating ‘rain’ of slowly settling mud suspension has recently been challenged in a major progress in our understanding of mud deposition. Evidence from laboratory experiments and microscopic mudrock studies indicates that some mud can be depos- ited in hydraulically more energetic conditions than previously assumed (Stow et al., 1996; Schieber, 1998; Schieber et al., 2007; Schieber and Southard, 2009) or be emplaced en masse as a gravity-driven, rheologically fluidal to plastic mudflow (Haughton et al., 2003; Baas et al., 2009) generated by the near-bottom densification of a settling mud suspension. ^e recognition of these various modes of mud deposition, along with the spatial pattern of mud dispersal in a basin, may have important implications for the basin’s sedimention conditions and basin-fill stratigraphy. ^is sedimentological topic is addressed by the field trip at its stop B8.4 in the context of the Glauco- nitic Magura Beds (late Eocene-early Oligocene) of the Carpathian Magura Nappe, a regionally extensive succession of turbiditic sandstones commonly capped with mudshales up to a few metres thick. ^e shale thicknesses correlate negatively with the sandstone bed Fig. 24. Depositional model for the Glauconitic Magura Beds (modi- fied from Leszczyński and Malata, 2002). thicknesses. ^e key contentious issues are: Are these mudshale beds just regular ‘turbidite shales’, as originally considered by Radomski (1960), or maybe representing prolonged quiet periods of hemipelagic suspension fall- out? Or perhaps they represent some other modes of mud emplacement, possibly quite rapid? ^e discussion of field evidence will focus on the thickness, colour varia- tion, grain-size composition, ichnofabric and microfauna content of mudshale beds, as well as on the depositional nature, relative thickness and palaeocurrent directions Fig. 25. Facies assemblages of the Glauconitic Magura Beds (modi- fied from Leszczyński et al., 2008). (A) Assemblage dominated by very thick sandstone beds (channel/lobe transition deposits); Wątkowa Sandstone near Folusz village, east of Gorlice. (B) Assem- blage dominated by thin to thick sandstones interbedded with shales (lobe axial deposits); Siary village, NW of Ropica Górna. (C) Assemblage with prominent intraformational breccia beds (lobe- flank to interlobe deposits); Ropica Górna. (D) Assemblage of thin to medium sandstones and shales (lobe-margin deposits); Siary village. (E) Assemblage dominated by very thick shales interspersed with thin/medium sandstones (interlobe deposits); Małastów village, south of Ropica Górna. 264 31st IAS Meeting of Sedimentology Kraków 2015 of the associated sandstones and their contacts with mudshales. The Glauconitic Magura Beds ^e sedimentary succession known as the Glau- conitic Magura Beds (GMB) in the Polish Outer Carpathians forms the uppermost stratigraphic part of the Magura Nappe (Fig. 4) in its frontal northern zone. ^e Magura Basin was bounded from the north by the Silesian Cordillera, at the foot of which a deep narrow trough formed in the late Eocene-early Oligocene and hosted the GMB base-of-slope depositional system supplied with sediment from the cordillera (Fig. 24). In the regional literature, this narrow northern zone of the Magura Basin is referred to as the Siary Zone. ^e GMB stratigraphic unit is up to 2000 m thick (Oszczypko- Clowes, 2001) and overlies conformably the Łabowa Formation (Fig. 4) dominated by variegated shales. GMB unit consists of quartzose to subfeldspathic sand- stone beds, thin to thick (Fig. 25), generally glauconite- bearing and commonly mud-rich (wackes); subordinate are beds of granule conglomerate and intraformational sedimentary breccia. ^e associated mudshale beds (Fig. 25) range from clayey to silty and from calcare- ous to non-calcareous. Isolated outcrops indicate that the sandstone net/gross (N/G) varies both vertically on a scale of several tens of metres and laterally, along the depositional strike, on a scale of several kilometres. As a broad regional stratigraphic trend, the low N/G lower member of the succession (referred to as the Zembrzyce Beds) passes upwards and also sideways into the high N/G middle member (the Wątkowa Sandstone), which is overlain by the lowest N/G upper member (the Budzów Beds). The coarse-grained deposits in the GMB range from non-graded to normal-graded and from massive to stratified. The thin sandstone beds are mainly Bouma-type turbidites Ta-c with siltstone to mudstone Tde caps. The mud-poor thick sandstone and gran- ule conglomerate beds are typically normal-graded, massive to banded/stratified (Fig. 25A, B), similar to the fluxoturbidites of Dżułyński et al. (1959), and are attributed to deposition by high-density turbid- ity currents (sensu Lowe, 1982). The mud-rich sand- stones and intraformational breccia beds are gener- ally massive and poorly graded, occasionally with a graded-stratified upper part (Fig. 25A, C, D), and are considered to be deposits of cohesive debris flows (Lowe, 1982; Nemec and Steel, 1984) and hybrid sedi- Fig. 26. Vertical variation in the content of CaCO3 and TOC and the frequency and variety of foraminifers in the mudshales of Glauco- nitic Magura Beds; outcrop section in Węglówka village, ca. 50 km south of Kraków. In the profile, note the tectonic unconformities (wavy lines) and the thickness gaps due to removal of thick sand- stone beds; note also the association of burrowing with the green shales. From Leszczyński and Malata (2002). 265 B8 — Sedimentological controversies in the Polish Carpathian flysch ment-gravity flows (sensu Haughton et al., 2009; Kane and Ponten, 2012). ^e mudshale beds have a much greater thickness range and are thickest (occasionally up to 20 m) in the stratigraphic intervals with the lowest N/G (e.g., Fig. 25E), such as the upper Budzów Beds. Calcareous mudshales predominate and the rock colour varies from brownish yellow-green (khaki), greyish-green and greenish-grey to dark-grey and black. ^e dominant grey and black calcareous shales are commonly overlain or separated by a thin (mainly <1 cm) layer of non-calcareous green shale (Fig. 26). ^e total organic carbon (TOC) content is generally low (<1%) and the black shales are only slightly richer in organic carbon than the grey or green shales (Fig. 26). ^e dark shales show a gradational contact with the underlying siltstone or silty sandstone of turbidite bed top. ^e shale basal part commonly shows normal grad- ing and faint plane-parallel lamination in the basal part. An admixture of very fine sand-sized grains (mainly quartz) occurs in the basal and topmost parts of shale beds, but also as diffuse horizons within the beds (Fig. 27; Fig. 27. Vertical changes in sand content and the frequency and type of foraminifers within a thick mudshale unit in the Glauconitic Magura Beds in Ropica Górna (stop B8.4, see outcrop points along the Sękówka river in Fig. 28). (A) Outcrop section at point 4.2. (B) Outcrop section at point 4.3. (C) Outcrop section ca. 500 m upstream from point 4.3. 266 31st IAS Meeting of Sedimentology Kraków 2015 Hawryłko, 2009; Schnabel, 2011). Shale beds thicker than 20 cm typically show burrows only in their uppermost part, less than 10 cm thick, with the bioturbation degree and foraminifer content increasing upwards and reach- ing maxima at the shale top and in its greenish capping. The non-calcareous green shales contain benthic foraminifers, almost exclusively agglutinated taxa, including: Nothia excelsa, Rhabdammina cylindrica, Psammosphaera sp., Glomospira glomerata, Haplophrag- moides parvulus, Haplophragmoides sp., Paratrochammi- noides spp., Ammsphaeroidina pseudopauciloculata and Recurvoides contortus. The assemblages indicate bathyal water depths, below the present-day calcite lysocline (Leszczyński and Malata, 2002). The calcareous dark shales bear only sporadic planktic and benthic taxa, both calcareous and agglutinated, and chiefly in the basal and topmost part of a bed (Figs 26, 27; Leszczyński and Mala- ta, 2002; Hawryłko, 2009; Schnabel, 2011). Interpretation of mud deposition Their intimate association and gradational contact with turbiditic sandstones indicates that the volu- metrically dominant grey/black calcareous mudshales are of turbiditic origin, whereas the non-calcare- ous, foraminifer-rich and heavily bioturbated green mudshales apparently represent hemipelagic ‘back- ground’ sedimentation. The rate of dark mud deposi- tion must have been very high, preventing bioturba- tion, whereas the deposition rate of the thin green mud layers was incomparably lower. The glauconite- bearing turbiditic sand suggests resedimentation from a shelf zone (Starzec, 2009), probably narrow and subject to erosion (Fig. 24), with the deposition taking place in a base-of-slope ramp system (sensu Reading and Rich- ards, 1994). The resedimentation was vigorous, leaving relatively little time for the background mud fallout. (The following text refers also to plates given as appendix illus- trations in the digital version of this excursion guide.) The large volumes of dark mud are thought to have been entrained by turbidity currents as a turbulent suspension, as indicated by basal normal grading, and were derived probably from the outermost shelf zone or basin-margin slope (Leszczyński and Malata, 1982) by the bypassing erosive currents - remobilizing and sucking-in mud in their wake (Fig. 24). The turbulent mud suspension often followed the parental current in Fig. 28. Geological map of the vicinities of Ropica Górna (stop B8.4); modified from Kopciowski (1996). Note the location of outcrop points (river segments) 4.1-4.3 in the excursion route up the Sękówka river. two or more successive surges, as indicated by the sand- content fluctuations in mudshale beds. The diffusely parallel-laminated initial stage of mud deposition resembles that of the Bouma turbiditic d-division. The settling of the current-entrained turbulent mud suspen- sion was probably causing its near-bottom densifica- tion, turning it into an increasingly laminar flow (see Plate 6A; Baas et al., 2009). The shear pattern and mode of fluid mud emplacement would vary with its volu- metric concentration and flow rate (Plate 6; see Baas et al., 2009). Turbulent shear would allow settling of the coarsest grains and development of normal grading. When reaching quickly the non-shearing ‘plug flow’ phase (sensu Baas et al., 2009), the mud might continue to move slowly as a ‘linked’ mudflow (sensu Haughton 267 B8 — Sedimentological controversies in the Polish Carpathian flysch et al., 2003), possibly carrying scattered sand grains and/or floating mud chips (Plate 6B; see also Torfs et al., 1996; Amy et al., 2006; Talling et al., 2012). Mud chips in a rock are visually difficult to distinguish from a mud matrix of similar composition, but the routine labora- tory disintegration of shale samples with Glauber’s salt in the present case had indicated some relatively hard mudrock bits which could well be chips/crumbs of a compacted primary mud. The trailing and densifying thick mud suspension would tend to be driven by gravity independently of the parental fast turbidity current, thereby commonly outrunning the spatial distribution of turbiditic sand (as evidenced by the dark shale beds separated with thin green shale horizons, Fig. 26) and also being drifted sideways into the inter-lobe topographic depressions of the depositional ramp system (Figs 24, 25E). This latter notion is supported by the ‘compen- sational’ spatial thickness distribution of shales rela- tive to sandstones and by the observed variability of palaeocurrent directions. If this hypothetical interpretation is correct, the emplacement of the thick beds of dark mud in the GMB succession might have been nearly as rapid as the deposi- tion of the turbiditic sand and granule gravel beds. The regional stratigraphic significance of the low N/G local successions in the Glauconitic Magura Beds would then need to be reconsidered in terms of the depositional system’s morphodynamics and its specific mode of sedi- ment supply. Stop description for topic 2 Stanisław Leszczyński, Wojciech Nemec The outcrops at stop B8.4 are in the river bedrock banks and floor, and hence wellingtons (high rubber boots) are needed. The excursion aim at this first stop on the second day is to demonstrate and discuss the sedimentary characteristics of the GMB succes- sion with a special focus on its variety of mudshale beds. The area is in the northern frontal zone of the Magura Nappe (Fig. 2), known as the Siary Zone (Fig. 24), and the GMB succession here is 1000-1400 m thick (Leszczyński et al., 2008). The outcrops in Ropica Górna show a mud-rich inter-lobe part of the Fig. 29. Sedimentological log of the lower part of Glauconitic Magu- ra Beds and the underlying Łabowa Formation in Ropica Górna (see stop B8.4 in Fig. 28, outcrop point 4.1). 268 31st IAS Meeting of Sedimentology Kraków 2015 Fig. 30. Outcrop details of the Glauconitic Magura Beds in Ropica Górna (stop B8.4, Fig. 28). (A) Succession dominated by mud-rich sandstone and intraformational breccia beds at point 4.1; the walking stick (scale) is 1.1 m. (B) Apparent hummocky stratification in a sandstone bed at the upstream end of point 4.1; the measuring stick is 0.9 m. (C) "tte Sękówka river floor exposing an 8-m thick mudshale unit overlain by a 4-m package of beds dominated by intraformational breccias; the upstream end of outcrop point 4.2. (D) Close-up detail from the upstream part of outcrop point 4.3, showing calcareous greyish brown mudshales separated by a thin layer of non-calcareous green mudshale; the coin size is 1.5 cm. "tte brown shales show light-colour silt streaks and the lower one shows clusters of Chondrites intricatus burrows. "tte green shale has a transitional lower boundary and sharp top, and is strongly bioturbated. Analyses of 100-g rock samples show that the brown shales contain only 17-179 foraminifer specimens (calcareous and benthic species), whereas the green shale contains nearly 11 000 specimens of exclusively agglutinated foraminifers. Siary turbiditic ramp system, passing laterally along the depositional strike into an adjacent sand-rich lobe part within a distance of less than 10 km to the east (see Leszczyński et al., 2008). B8.4.1-4 Ropica Górna Outcrops at the banks and floor of river Sękówka. (49°36'02" N, 21°13'27" E to 49°35'34" N, 21°13'58" E) The bedrock banks and floor of the north-flowing Sękówka river in Ropica Górna (Fig. 28) afford a nearly continuous outcrop section of the lower part of the GMB succession (Fig. 29), ca. 100 m thick, dated to the latest Eocene (Oszczypko-Clowes, 2001). ^e GMB succession has a tectonized lower boundary and is cut by a few en echelon faults, but contains a marker megabed of sedi- mentary breccia, 5 m thick, which allows the succession stratigraphy to be followed and its local offset by faults to be estimated at ca. 10-20 m. ^e consecutive points of the excursion route are in the upstream direction (see Fig. 28). Point 4.1 - 'tte river floor above the bridge of the main road Gorlice-Konieczna in the northern part of the village (Fig. 28). The basal contact of the GMB with the under- lying variegated shales of the Łabowa Formation (Fig. 29, lower left) is disturbed by tectonic thrusting. ^e lowest part of the GMB (4.6 m thick, Fig. 29) is dominated by dark brownish-grey and greyish-green calcareous shales interbedded with thin glauconitic sandstones, considered by Oszczypko-Clowes (2001) to represent the Zembrzyce Beds. This basal part is separated by a fault from the overlying part (ca. 30 m thick, Fig. 29, left), exposed in the river right-hand bank and composed of dark calcare- ous and subordinate greenish non-calcareous mudshales intercalated with thin to thick beds of massive arenites and wackes; it is cut by a minor fault in the middle and its proportion of sandstones increases upwards. 269 B8 — Sedimentological controversies in the Polish Carpathian flysch ^e higher part of the succession, ca. 30 m thick (Fig. 29, right), crops out in the river left-hand bank (Fig. 30A). This part of the succession seems to have been repeated by a thrust (Fig. 29, upper right) and can be followed upstream along the strike over a distance of ca. 250 m (Fig. 28), although its exposure is fragmentary and limit- ed mainly to the river floor, 'tte thick mudshale beds here lack bioturbation, whereas the associated sandstone beds show trace fossils on their soles. The succession includes a 10-m package of thick sandstone beds showing trough or scour-and-fill cross-stratification as well as enigmatic hummocky stratification (Fig. 30B). A several metres thick package of interbedded sandstones and dark-grey/ black and brown/green mudshales forms the top part of the succession. Common are muddy sandstone beds rich in mudclasts, and also the marker breccia megabed is reached at the upstream end of the strike section, offset by another fault. Sandstone beds indicate deposition by turbidity currents, cohesive debris flows and intermediate ‘hybrid’ flows (see Haughton et al., 2003; Amy et al., 2006; Kane and Ponten, 2012; Talling et al., 2012). Short-distane lateral changes in bed thicknesses indicate an uneven deposition- al topography. The thick non-bioturbated mudshale beds imply rapid emplacement, with an immediate post-depo- sitional colonization by fauna indicated by trace fossils on the overlying sandstone soles. Unclear is the origin of apparent hummocky stratification (first recognized here by Piotr S. Dziadzio). Point 4.2 - ^e next upstream segment of the river (Fig. 28), ca. 200 m long, is a strike section of deposits about 10 m above the marker breccia megabed. Promi- nent here is a very thick (ca. 8 m) unit of massive, dark- grey mudshale (Figs 27A, 30C). ^e underlying sand- stone-rich package and the overlying shale-rich package of turbidites contain isolated subordinate beds of intra- formational breccia (Fig. 27A). A systematic sampling of the thick mudshale unit’s vertical profile indicates irregular changes in both its sand content and the abundance and variety of foramini- fers (see Fig. 27A and plot A’). ^is hidden heterogene- ity suggests that the shale unit is probably composite, emplaced in at least four successive surges of fluidal mud ranging from weakly turbulent and crudely graded to increasingly non-turbulent, with a sand-bearing rigid plug (see Baas et al., 2009). Point 4.3 - ^e last upstream segment of river Sękówka, ca. 300 m long, is a strike section of the marker breccia megabed, 5 m thick, exposing it from the top to base. The sedimentary breccia has a muddy sand matrix and contains large rafted fragments of sandy and hetero- lithic turbidites as well as mudshale blocks as large as 1.7 x 5 m. It is underlain by a 2-m mudshale unit whose top part consists of greyish brown calcareous shale layers (4-4.5 cm thick), with sporadic Chondrites and Phycosi- phon burrows and infrequent foraminifers (solely benthic species, both calcareous and agglutinated), intercalated with strongly bioturbated layers (1-1.5 cm) of green non- calcareous shale (Fig. 30D) rich in exclusively aggluti- nated foraminifers. ^e breccia megabed is covered by a sandstone turbidite T(a)bc, 20 cm thick, and further by a calcareous, dark-grey massive mudshale with an exposed thickness of 2.5 m. At the upstream end of this river segment, across two closely-spaced faults, the thick dark-grey mudshale unit of point 4.2 (Fig. 27A) is exposed in the river left- hand bank, here reaching a thickness of 9.4 m (Fig. 27B). It is underlain by thick sandstone beds and covered with thinly-bedded heterolithic turbidites. The mudshale unit in its vertical profile shows similar fluctuations of sand content (Fig. 27, diagram B’) as in its outcrop at point 4.2 (cf. diagram A’). Analogous fluctuations are observed in an outcrop ca. 500 m farther upstream, where the mudshale unit decreases in thickness to 2.6 m (Fig. 27C, diagram C’). Field-trip topic 3: The Lower Oligocene - still deep-water turbidites or rather shallow- marine deposits? Piotr S. Dziadzio Introduction Palaeobathymetry has been a central and controver- sial issue in the analysis of the flysch basins of the Polish Outer Carpathians, now represented by the individual nappes. Until 1937, the Carpathian flysch was thought to have been deposited in shallow-water conditions, because of the abundance of sandstones and conglom- erates. Sujkowski (1938) was probably the first who 270 31st IAS Meeting of Sedimentology Kraków 2015 suggested that the Carpathian flysch was deposited at water depths ‘greater than those of the North Sea’. This view soon gained strong support from Książkiewicz (1948), who found the origin of shale-capped graded sandstone beds difficult to reconcile with shallow-water conditions. After the publication of turbidity current hypothesis by Kuenen and Migliorini (1950), the notion of sediment gravity flows and deep-water conditions was swiftly adopted by the Carpathian leading flysch researchers (Vasicek, 1953; Książkiewicz, 1954). On the basis of foraminifer studies, Książkiewicz (1958) suggest- ed that the water depth in the Carpathian flysch basins was mainly bathyal (200-3500 m), but probably varied in space and time, with some deposits possibly neritic. A deepwater origin of the Carpathian flysch was postu- lated further by Dżułyński et al. (1959), Dżułyński and Walton (1965) and several other authors. Koszarski and Żytko (1965) suggested that the flysch basins were rela- tively shallow during the Early Cretaceous, but attained abyssal depths in the Late Cretaceous and Palaeocene- Eocene before becoming gradually shallower again in the Oligocene. The early bathymetric reconstructions of the Polish Outer Carpathian flysch, based on foraminifers and trace fossils, were given in the benchmark publica- tions by Książkiewicz (1975, 1977). However, the notion of a deep-water origin of the Carpathian flysch was also concurrently questioned by several researchers in the region (e.g., Hanzlikova and Roth, 1963; Watycha, 1963; Draghinda, 1963; Bieda, 1969). According to Bieda (1969), the flysch forma- tions containing solely agglutinated foraminifers were deposited in lacustrine environments, enclosed shallow-water bays and river-mouth areas, whereas formations with mixed assemblages of agglutinated and calcareous foraminifers were deposited in littoral to neritic environments. This hypothesis was discard- ed by Książkiewicz (1975) on the basis of the modern distribution of foraminifers. He reinforced the opinion that the Polish Outer Carpathian flysch was deposited at bathyal water depths, perhaps mainly in the upper bathyal zone of 200-600 m. The latter view was later enhanced by Ślączka and Kaminski (1998), who suggested that all the Jurassic to Miocene deposits in the Polish Outer Carpathians were of deep-water origin. A bathyal to abyssal water depth was postulated by several authors for the Early Cretaceous to Fig. 31. (A) Geological map of the Gorlice area (see also excursion stop 8.5 in Figs 1, 2, 4), showing the location of the excursion area in Menilite Beds and the Magdalena oilfield; map modified from Świdziński (1954). (B) Detailed geological map of the excursion area with the location of stops 5.1-5.4; map modified from Szymakowska (1977); for complete legend, see Fig. 17. 271 B8 — Sedimentological controversies in the Polish Carpathian flysch Eeocene flysch deposits (Uchman at al., 2006; Słomka et al., 2006; Olszewska and Malata, 2006; Waśkowska and Cieszkowski, 2014). Słomka et al. (2006) suggested a marked shallowing of the bathyal basins (ca. 1000 m depth) in the late Eocene to late Oligocene. A possible occurrence of shelf environments was inferred by Olsze- wska and Malata (2006) on the basis of foraminifers for the early Oligocene Menilite Beds. The regional studies as a whole leave little doubt that the vast majority of the Polish Outer Carpathian flysch was deposited in deep-water settings, bathyal and perhaps locally even abyssal. However, for an evolving array of tectonically active wedge-top basins (sensu DeCelles and Giles, 1996) it is also quite likely that many transient zones of shallow-water sedimentation would form and that their deposits, if not cannibalized by erosion, might occasionally be preserved within the ultimate nappe stack. This hypothesis is suggested here to be the case with the Magdalena Sandstone member at the top of the early Oligocene Menilite Beds formation in the Silesian Nappe, at its boundary with the overlying Sub-Magura/ Dukla Nappe (Figs 2, 4). The deposits in question, nearly 200 m thick, are both underlain and overlain by deep- water turbiditic successions. The contentious issue is: Can these deposits, in the middle of a very thick deep- marine flysch succession, be of shallow-marine origin? The Menilite Beds and their uncertain palaeobathymetry The early Oligocene shale-rich Menilite Beds form a regional lithostratigraphic unit present in all the Polish Outer Carpathian nappes (Fig. 4), which may suggest a palaeogeographic stage of a very broad deep-water basin. The origin of the organic carbon- rich black Menilite shales has long attracted research interest in regional studies (e.g., Kuźniar, 1952; Badak and Grudzień, 1961; Gabinet and Jurczakiewicz, 1962; Koster et al., 1998a, b; Koltun, 1992; Koltun et al., 1995, 1998; Matyasik and Dziadzio, 2006; Kotarba et al., 2013, 2014), with much less focus on the associated sandstones complexes (e.g., Żgiet, 1963; Dżułyński and Smith, 1964; Koszarski, 1965; Ślączka and Unrug, 1966; Kotlarczyk, 1976; Jankowski et al., 2012). A possible non-turbiditic origin of sandstone complex- es in the Menilite Beds has been suggested briefly by Dżułyński and Kotlarczyk (1962), Dżułyński and Smith (1964) and Jankowski et al. (2012). The Menilite Beds in all nappes, except for the Magu- ra Nappe (Fig. 4), overlie synchronously the regionally- extensive unit of Globigerina Marls (lowest Rupelian) and commence with dark-brown bituminous shales interlayered with cherts and siliceous marls (Gucwa and Ślączka, 1972; Olszewska 1985; Ślączka and Kaminski, 1998). The shaly succession contains three main sand- stone complexes: the Cergowa Sandstone in the Dukla Nappe, the Magdalena Sandstone in the Silesian Nappe near Gorlice, and the Kliwa Sandstone in the Skole nappe (Ślączka and Kaminski, 1998). The upper boundary of the Menilite Beds is diachronous, older to the south (Dukla Nappe) and younger, Chattian/Aquitanian to the north (Skole Nappe) (Koszarski and Żytko, 1961; Gucwa and Ślączka, 1980; Olszewska, 1985; Ślączka and Kaminski, 1998; Kotlarczyk et al., 2006). Planktic and benthic foraminifers in the Menilite Beds indicate deposition at sublittoral to upper bath- yal water depths (Olszewska, 1985; see also Olszewska and Malata, 2006). Abundant ichtiofauna indicates fish assemblages dwelling in water depths of 200 to 2000 m, but also includes some shallow-water species (Jerzmańska, 1968, Jerzmańska and Kotlarczyk, 1988; Kotlarczyk et al., 2006). More recent sedimentological studies of the Menilite Beds in the Gorlice area (Enfield et al., 1998; Dziadzio et al., 1998; Watkinson et al., 2001; Dziadzio et al., 2006) have postulated a shallow-marine origin of this succession including the Magdalena Sandstone with a long-producing hydrocarbon reservoir (eventually abandoned in 2012). The occurrence of features inter- preted as hummocky cross-stratification implies depo- sition above the storm wave base, which means a water depth no greater than 100 m and perhaps less than 50 m on the account of the landlocked nature of the Carpathian Paratethys seaway (Rogl, 1998). As pointed out by Jankowski et al. (2012), it could only be the lack of detailed sedimentological studies that allowed these and possibly also some other deposits in the Outer Carpathian flysch to be lumped with the vertically- adjacent deposits as deep-water turbidites. The Menilite Beds with the controversial Magdalena Sandstone are the topic of the excursion stop B8.5 in the Gorlice area (Fig. 31). 272 31st IAS Meeting of Sedimentology Kraków 2015 Fig. 32. (A) Sedimentological log of the Menilite Beds from the outcrop section in Sękówka river (excursion stop B8.5, Fig. 31B) (B) An example geophysical well-log from the nearby Magdalena oilfield (see location in Fig. 31A). The low values of neutron and gamma-ray signals indicate sandstones, whereas the high gamma-ray values indicate shales. The sandstone net thickness in the well is ca. 120 m and the shale net thickness is ca. 60 m (Dziadzio et al., 2006). 273 B8 — Sedimentological controversies in the Polish Carpathian flysch The Menilite Beds in Gorlice area The Menilite Beds succession in the Gorlice area was described stratigraphically by Szymakowska (1979), Karnkowski (1999) and Dziadzio et al. (2006). A tectonic thrust separates this unit from the underlying Eocene green shales (Fig. 32), and the unit here differs from its typical other appearances in the Silesian Nappe and in the Skole Nappe (Szymakowska 1979). Siliceous marls, instead of cherts, occur in its lowest part; typical cherty ‘menilitic’ shales are rare; and the succession is dominated by the quartzose arenites of the Magdalena Sandstone (Fig. 32). The Magdalena Sandstone, named after an estate and oilfield in Gorlice, consists of thick-bedded, coarse- to very coarse-grained and subordinate fine-grained quartz- glauconite sandstones and quartz-rich conglomerates. Cement is calcite with iron compounds. Sandstone beds range from nearly massive to well-stratified. Shale-dominated parts of the succession (Fig. 32) consist of the thin (10-20 cm) to thick (occasionally >1 m) beds of greyish brown, dark-grey and black, organ- ic-rich noncalcareous shales, mainly laminated, with common heterolithic intervals of shale thinly interlay- ered with greyish white fine-grained sandstones and showing classical lenticular, wavy and flaser bedding. The top part of the succession, at its transition to the turbidites of the Krosno Beds (Fig. 32), shows slump features and consists of shales and heterolithic depos- its alternating with thin beds of both the Magdalena- type quartz-glauconite sandstones and the Krosno- type quartz-muscovite calcareous sandstones. The shales are a good-quality source rock for hydro- carbons. They have a fairly low degree of thermal matu- ration (Tmax = 414oC), are rich in organic matter (TOC = 10.12%), and their hydrocarbon yield potential is ca. 45 mg HC per 1 g of the rock. Oil-prone kerogen of type II dominates, with the hydrocarbons rich in aliphatic and naphtenic compounds. However, the content of sulphur is high, which reduces the shale’s HC-generation potential. Biomarkers indicate sediment deposition in anoxic condi- tions. The content of C29 hopanes is much higher than that of C30 hopanes, which may suggest deposition in a shallow shelf environment (Matyasik and Dziadzio, 2006). The thickness of the Menilite Beds in the Magdalena oilfield south-west of Gorlice (Fig. 31A) is in the range of 150-180 m. The thickness in the excursion area along the Sękówka river (Fig. 31B) is 180 m (Fig. 32A), but decreas- es along the strike both westwards (Fig. 31B) and east- wards (Szymakowska, 1979). The unit is only 75 m thick near the village Kryg, 7 km to the east of Gorlice (Fig. Fig. 33. Schematic hypothetical model (not to scale) for the late Eocene to early Oligocene sedimentation on the flanks of the emerging Silesian Cordillera between the Magura Basin and Silesian Basin. (A) Narrow synclinal trough forms at the southern foot of the cordillera, where the late Eocene base-of-slope Glauconitic Magura Beds succession is deposited with sediment derivation from a cannibalized narrow transient shelf (see Fig. 24). (B) A narrow transient depositional shelf forms on the northern flank of the cordillera, where the early Oligocene Magdalena Sandstone succession is deposited and becomes preserved by burial when the shelf eventually founders and the Silesian Basin is separated by another blind-thrust anticlinal cordillera from the Skole Basin. 274 31st IAS Meeting of Sedimentology Kraków 2015 Fig. 34. Stratigraphic interpretation of the Menilite Beds succession in the excursion area in terms of a depositional model of a tide- and storm-influenced narrow shelf onto which a shoal-water delta progrades (see also Fig. 33B); for further interpretive details, see text. 31A), where its profile also shows only two 20-m sand- stone packages (Kozikowski, 1966). The thickness of the Menilite Beds decreases to ca. 60 m over a distance 15 km to the north and north-west (Birecki, 1964; Karnkowski, 1959) and to the west (Świdziński, 1950, 1953), where the compositionally different Kliwa Sandstone deposits (Koszarski, 1965) begin to appear laterally. The Magdale- na Sandstone occurs in only some wells to the south and virtually pinches out northwards, which jointly indicates a lenticular sandstone complex with an estimated strike- parallel (W-E) width of at least 35 km and a basinward dip-parallel (S-N) extent of ca. 20 km. Interpretation of the Magdalena Sandstone The cordilleras separating Carpathian flysch basins, when diachronously uplifted by thrusting, are thought to have developed narrow transient shelf zones hosting neritic to littoral sedimentation (Fig. 33). Most of these fringing shelves were cannibalized by excessive uplift and erosion, as in the case of the Glauconitic Magura Beds (stop B8.4, Fig. 33A), but some others might escape destruction and preserve their shallow-marine deposits when subsiding. This is thought to have been the case with the Magdalena Sandstone - deposited on an uplift- ed bathyal fringe of the Silesian Basin and then buried when the shelf tectonically foundered (Fig. 33B) and deep-water sedimentation resumed. The Menilite Beds succession in the present case (Fig. 34, profile) has upper-bathyal but quite atypical ‘menil- itic’ shales at the base, which can be attributed to deposi- tion in the basin’s shallowing fringe zone (Fig. 33A). The occurrence of first sand-filled channels (Fig. 34, profile) is a signal of an impending forced regression driven by tectonic uplift, and the subsequent appearance of hetero- lithic deposits with tidalites and tempestites marks the onset of shelf conditions. The first coarsening-upwards 275 B8 — Sedimentological controversies in the Polish Carpathian flysch package of deposits (Fig. 34, profile) is a regressive parasequence recording shelf shallowing and formation of shelf-crossing channels. As discussed by Lewis (1982) in his review of modern and ancient cases, such shelf-crossing channels/gullies - possibly extending down beyond the shelf edge (see Plate 7) - tend to form in the forefront of highly-constructive (i.e., strongly prograding) deltas. They can be formed by: (1) strong rip currents generated by storms on a low-relief coast; (2) down-dip progression of sediment mass fail- ures on a tectonically steepened shelf; (3) retrogressive slumping initiated at the shelf edge or on the slope; or (4) a combination of these processes. The second coarsening-upwards regressive parase- quence (Fig. 34, profile), deposited after an episode of abrupt marine flooding, culminated in a sandy package of offset-stacked distal deltaic mouth-bar lobes - herald- ing encroachment of a wave-worked shoal-water delta (sensu Leeder et al., 1988; Postma, 1990) or mouth bar- type delta (sensu Dunne and Hempton, 1984; Wood and Ethridge, 1988). The delta advance was interrupted by another episode of abrupt marine flooding, attributed - same as the previous one - to a rapid tectonic subsidence of the shelf (see Fig. 33B). The third and last regressive parasequence (Fig. 34, profile) culminated in a sandy package of offsetstacked deltaic mouth-bar lobes with distributary channels (see top- left inset diagram in Fig. 34), which indicates an even great- er advance of the shoal-water delta. The shelf subsequently foundered and deep-water sedimentation resumed (Fig. 34, profile top) due to progressive thrusting, when also the Sile- sian Basin was separated from the Skole Basin (Fig. 33B). As a whole, the Menilite Beds succession in the excur- sion area is considered to be a parasequence set recording Fig. 35. Outcrop details from the excursion point 5.1 (Figs 31B, 32). (A) A typical outcrop of the Menilite Beds in the banks and floor of the Sękówka river. (B) Hydroplastically deformed sandstone bed in a heterolithic package, ca. 30 m above the succession base (see log in Fig. 32); the yellow measuring stick is 1 m. (C) Sandstone bed with apparent hummocky stratification (HCS), draped with wave- and current- ripple cross-lamination; the yellow measuring stick is 1 m. (D) A small-scale coarsening-upwards package of heterolithic deposits capped with hummocky-stratified sandstone beds; the yellow measuring stick is 1 m. (E) The sharp erosional base of the sandstone at the top of the heterolithic succession at point 5.1 (see log height of ca. 42 m in Fig. 32). 276 31st IAS Meeting of Sedimentology Kraków 2015 a tectonically-forced regression punctuated by marine flooding events due to episodic shelf subsidence (incipi- ent structural foundering). The deltaic system is thought to have been ‘accommodation-driven’ (sensu Porębski and Steel, 2003) and hence readily reaching the margin of a narrow shelf. As a shelfedge delta, the Magdalena system and its forefront channels may have supplied considerable volumes of turbiditic sand to the adjacent part of the Sile- sian Basin where the Menilite Beds were deposited (Fig. 33B; see Porębski and Steel, 2003; Sanchez et al., 2012). Stop description for topic 3 B8.5 Gorlice Leader: Piotr S. Dziadzio The outcrops at stop B8.4 also are in the river bedrock banks and floor, and hence wellingtons (high rubber boots) are needed. The excursion aim at this last stop (Fig. 31B) is to show and discuss the key evidence for a shallow-marine origin of the Magdalena Sandstone: the sandstone bodies interpreted as shelf-to-slope palaeo- channels; the thinly-bedded heterolithic deposits inter- preted as outer-shelf tidalites and distal tempestites; the thicker sandstone beds with apparent HCS and wave- ripple cross-lamination, interpreted as mid-shelf prodel- ta tempestites; and the offset-stacked parallel-stratified sandstone bodies interpreted as distal to proximal deltaic mouth-bar complexes. B.5.1-4 (Fig. 31B) Outcrops in the banks and floor of river Sękówka in its 600-m segment from Gorlice Sokół (49°38'51" N, 21°10'43" E) to Gorlice Łęgi (49°38'43” N, 21°11T0" E) Point 5.1 - The Sękówka river here (Fig. 31B) exposes the lower boundary and basal part of the Menilite Beds. The Menilite Beds succession commences with a pack- age of grey to brownish-grey siliceous marls that over- lie sharply the late Eocene green shales (Fig. 32). Their contact is a tectonic thrust, but perhaps only a few metres of deposits are missing, because the dark brownish-grey shales characteristic of the Menilite Beds occur already as thin interlayers in the underlying package of green shales. Missing here is the regional stratigraphic mark- er unit known as the Globigerina Marls (Leszczyński, 1997), but the basal part of Menilite Beds, a few metres Fig. 36. A small-scale coarsening-upwards succession of heterolithic deposits in the middle part of the Menilite Beds profile at the excursion point 5.2 (see Fig. 31B and log in Fig. 32); the measuring stick is 1 m. 277 B8 — Sedimentological controversies in the Polish Carpathian flysch Fig. 37. A small-scale coarsening-upwards succession of heterolithic deposits with wave-ripple cross-lamination, overlain by a hummocky- stratified sandstone bed; outcrop detail from the excursion point 5.2 (see Fig. 31B and log in Fig. 32). "tte measuring stick in the upper photograph is 50 cm. Fig. 38. Packages of broadly convex-upwards sandstone beds stacked in an offset ‘compensational’ manner, interpreted to be shingled distal mouth bars of an advancing shoal-water delta (see Fig. 34, upper left). Outcrop detail from the excursion stop 5.3 (see Fig. 31B and log in Fig. 32). thick, consists of grey and greyish-brown marls above which the typical shales of Menilite Beds appear. These are black and dark-brown, thinly laminated clayshales, with a variable amount of organic matter, interlay- ered with mudshales and thin siltstones. ^e shales are sharply, erosively overlain by a thick (5 m) body of poorly sorted, massive sandstone - interpreted as a shelf-margin palaeochannel plugged with sandy deposits of debris flows (sensu Lowe, 1982). The overlying package of heterolithic deposits (22 m thick), with lenticular, wavy and flaser bedding, is inter- calated with sheet-like beds of very fine- to fine-grained and occasionally coarse-grained glauconitic sandstones, 10 to 30 cm thick, sporadically up to 60 cm. ^e sand- stone beds occur at random or form, with the underlying heterolithic deposits, small (0.5 to 4 m thick) coarsening- upwards successions (Fig. 35A, D). Some sandstone beds 278 31st IAS Meeting of Sedimentology Kraków 2015 are graded-massive, whereas others show planar parallel stratification, current- and wave-ripple cross-lamination, and occasional hummocky-like stratification (Fig. 35C). Bed tops often show convolutions and some beds are hydroplastically deformed throughout by slump-style folding (Fig. 35B). The sandstone beds are thought to be tempestites (sensu Dott and Bourgeois, 1982; Duke et al., 1991) and storm-generated turbidites (sensu Walker, 1969, 1984) emplaced in a tidally-influenced outer shelf zone. The overlying thick (up to 20 m) body of fine- to very coarse-grained glauconitic sandstones (Fig. 32A) with a sharp erosional base (Fig. 35E), mudclasts and crude upward fining is interpreted to be a shelf-crossing palaeochannel filled through multiple cut-and-fill stages. Point 5.2 - ^e river floor here (Fig. 31B) exposes the overlying, coarsening-upwards package of hetero- lithic deposits (ca. 35 m thick, Fig. 32A) interspersed with sheet-like sandstone beds. The heterolithic depos- its often form small-scale coarsening-upwards succes- sions (Fig. 36). ^e origin of this apparent cyclicity is unclear, but the small parasequences may possibly reflect the impact of the Milankovitch astronomical cycles on the tide and wave climate of the shelf (see De Boer and Smith, 1994; Westerhold et al., 2005). ^e tabular sandstone beds, interpreted as tempestites and storm-derived turbidites, tend here to be thicker than earlier in the succession. Some of the thickest beds show hummocky stratification (Fig. 37). Local gutter casts (Fig. 36) with a SE trend indicate storm-generated geostrophic currents flowing parallel to the shelf strike, as is generally expected for an outer shelf zone (Walker, 1984). ^e coarsening-upwards heterolithic succession culminates in a 25-m thick sandstone unit (Fig. 32A) composed of broadly lenticular, gently convex-upwards, offset-stacked packages of thin sandstone beds with planar parallel stratification and minor wave-ripple cross-lamination. The lenticular bed packages are inter- References Allaby, A. & Allaby, M., 1999. A Dictionary of Earth Scienc- es. Oxford University Press, 619 pp. Amy, L. A., Talling, P. J., Edmonds, V. O., Sumner, E. J. & Lesueur, A., 2006. An experimental investigation of sand-mud suspension settling behaviour: implications preted to be shingled, waveworked distal mouth bars of an encroaching shoal-water delta (Fig. 34). Point 5.3 - The river floor in this segment (Fig. 31B) exposes the next package of coarsening-upwards heterolithic deposits interspersed with sheet-like sandstone beds and culminating in another sand- stone unit ca. 25 m thick (Fig. 32A). The heterolithic package again shows small-scale coarsening-upwards cyclothems, some capped with hummocky-stratified sandstone beds. The overlying sandstone unit, much like the previous one (stop 5.2, Fig. 32A), consists of broadly lenticular, gently convex-upwards packages of sandstone beds (Fig. 38) with planar parallel stratifica- tion and occasional current- or wave-ripple crosslami- nation. Many of these offset-stacked packages here are cross-cut by shallow palaeochannels filled with very coarse-grained to pebbly sand. The general palae- otransport direction is to the NE (Szymakowska, 1979), with the palaeochannels trending towards the NE or NNE. This sandstone complex is thought to repre- sent shingled proximal mouth bars of a re-advancing shoal-water delta (Fig. 34). Point 5.4 - ^e river floor here (Fig. 31B) exposes the uppermost part of the Menilite Beds succession and its transition to the overlying Krosno Beds (Fig. 32A) whose thick-bedded, quartz-muscovite calcareous sandstones are widely considered to be deep-water turbidites. The top part of the Menilite Beds is heterolithic, with at least two thick (ca. 1 m) erosive beds of massive to trough cross-stratified and ripple-laminated quartz-glauconite sandstone underlain by deformed heterolithic deposits. The Magdalena-type non-calcareous sandstones and Krosno-type calcareous sandstones occur alternatingly in the heterolithic transitional part of the succession. 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Facies Descriptive characteristics (bed varieties) Beds of massive (non-stratified) and non-graded coarse sandstone, usually rich in granules, with erosional bases Facies mS (Fig. 16A, B). Beds are up to a few metres thick and often amalgamated into thicker packages. The deposit is massive a mixture of sand, granules/small pebbles and some silt. Bedding-parallel alignment of clasts indicates laminar non-graded shear, but internal textural discontinuities, inclined local shear banding and relics of scour-fill cross-strata suggest sandstone incremental deposition and transient flow turbulence. Some beds show dewatering structures. Rip-up mudstone clasts occur, up to several decimetres in size and usually armoured. These deposits shows locally lateral transition into normal-graded sandstone or conglomerate-sandstone, or planar-stratified sandstone. Beds of massive coarse sandstone and granule/fine-pebble conglomerate up to a few metres thick, often erosionally amalgamated, showing thick faint to distinct parallel stratification or banding (Fig. 16C, D). The strata, marked by grain size segregation, are planar or inclined and several millimetres to decimetre in thickness. They form Facies tlsS thin laminae sets of fine to medium sand separated by massive coarser-sand layers, or form thicker bands of finer thickly stratified and coarser sand. The inversely- graded layers of fine/medium to coarse sand or granule gravel resemble both (layered or banded) the S2 division of Lowe (1982) and the ‘spaced/stepped-laminated’ division TB of Talling et al. (2012). The faint sandstone stratification is usually slightly undulating, made visible on rock surfaces as alternating delicate, concave/convex bands or spaced ribs by differential weathering. Otherwise, the beds show no overall grading. Some beds have thick massive lower division. An inclined banding or diffuse scour-fill cross-stratification are sporadically observed at the bed bases. Facies gS Beds of graded massive coarse sandstone (often with scattered pebbles) or fine-grained conglomerate passing graded massive upwards into coarse sandstone (Fig. 16E-H), up to a few metres thick, isolated or amalgamated into thicker sandstone or fine packages. Bed bases are erosional and occasionally show load casts. This is the most common facies of the Ciężkowice conglomerate Sandstone. The gravelly division is inversely graded in its basal part in some cases. Mudstone rip-up clasts, up to to sandstone a few decimetres in size and usually armoured, occur in the lower or upper part of some beds, particularly at the transition from coarse- to finer-grained sandstone. The massive sandstone shows locally dewatering structures in the upper part. The flat bed tops are occasionally capped with a thin Bouma-type turbidite Tbcd or Tde. Beds of graded-stratified coarse sandstone or fine-grained conglomerate passing upwards into sandstone, up Facies gsS to a few metres thick (Fig. 16I-L). The lower parts of beds are usually massive and normally graded, but the graded-stratified conglomeratic ones occasionally show inverse grading at the base. Mudstone rip-up clasts, up to several decimetres sandstone or fine in size and usually armoured, occur in the massive part of some beds. Stratification resembles that in facies tlsS and conglomerate is most visible at the conglomerate/sandstone transition, including planar, inclined and trough-shaped scour-fill to sandstone varieties. Pebbles tend to show flow-aligned imbricate fabric. Beds with flat, non-truncated top are usually capped with a Bouma-type fine-grained turbidite Tbcd or Tde. Beds with a massive upper part tend to show dewatering structures. Facies Scl Beds of graded-stratified coarse sandstone or fine-grained conglomerate passing upward to sandstone, up to a few sandstone with metres thick (Fig. 16M, N). Stratification is accentuated by flat lenses of granule and/or fine-pebble conglomerate, conglomerate lenses isolated or multiple, occurring in bed lower parts. The upper parts of beds show planar parallel stratification as in the Bouma turbidite b-division. The Organizing Committee would like to acknowledge the generous support of our Sponsors, Patrons, Partners and Exhibitors Platinum Sponsor Silver Partner USB Flash-Drive Sponsor Patron Sponsor Silver Sponsor Exhibitors