Review
Morphogenesis of New Straits and Islands Originated in the European Arctic Since the 1980s
Wieslaw Ziaja * and Krzysztof Ostafn
Institute of Geography and Spatial Management, Jagiellonian University in Cracow, Gronostajowa 7, 30-387 Krakow, Poland; krzysztof.ostafn@uj.edu.pl
* Correspondence: wieslaw.ziaja@uj.edu.pl
Received: 28 October 2019; Accepted:9November 2019; Published: 12 November 2019
Abstract: Several new islands and many islets have appeared in the European Arctic since the end of the 20th century due to glacial recession under climate warming. The specifcity of the formation of each individual strait and island is shown in the paper (apart from its location and timing of its origin). Analysis of available maps and satellite images of all three European Arctic archipelagos, from different times since 1909–1910, was the main research method. There are three pathways of the morphogenesis of the new islands: (1) simultaneous recession of glaciers from both sides of a depressionin bedrock beinga potential strait (typicalin Franz Josef Land),(2) uncoveringarocky hill (which protrudes from a depression in bedrock) from under a receding glacier, (3) recession of one glacier which hadreachedarocky fragmentofa coastline (e.g., headland or peninsula), being a potential new island, during a maximum extent of this glacier during the Little Ice Age (in the beginning of the 20th century). Additional straits and islands are currently at the stage of formation and will continueto formin the EuropeanArcticin the caseoffurther warming or stabilizationof the current climate conditions.
Keywords: climate change; glacial recession; coastal landscape transformation; new Arctic islands and straits; European Arctic
1. Introduction
In the European Arctic, the Little Ice Age began not later than in the middle of the 17th century[1] and lasted until the endof the 19th century[2]. Since the 1980s, the wholeArctic has undergone the current climate warming[3]. In the study area (Barents Sea with adjacent archipelagos), this warming was “evidently( ... )thegreatest”intheArctic[4].Strong evidence existstoshowthatthis warming ledtoglacialrecessionintheareaafterthe LittleIceAge,i.e.,inthe20thand21st centuries[5–7]. Hence, we omit other references to these events and set to outline the main subject of interest.
In the period 1963–2017, a total of 34 new islands—each with an area 0.5 km2 or more—appeared asaresultofthe fragmentationof their coastsduetotherecessionof tide-water glaciersintheArctic. Each island has been accurately mapped. Most of the new islands appeared near Greenland but seven appeared in the European Arctic. Of course, the formation of a new strait is necessary for the appearance of a new island. Each new strait came into existence due to the ablation of a glacier or glaciers, which had flled an open depression (below sea level) in bedrock covered previously with ice. Additional islands arein the courseof the formation[8].
In this paper, we wish to broaden our knowledge of the eight new European islands beyond their location and formation time. Seven of the islands have been examined and discussed by us previously[8].The smallestofthe islands takeninto accounthadanareaof0.4km2(Table 1). Hence, our objective in this paper is to show the specifcity of the formation of each individual strait and island
Geosciences 2019, 9, 476; doi:10.3390/geosciences9110476 www.mdpi.com/journal/geosciences
in order to fnd similarities and differences in their morphogenesis. The term “morphogesis” is defned as a manner in which landforms and glaciers change, leading to the formation of a strait and an island.
Table 1. NewArctic islands. Location numbers are the same asin Figure 1.
No. Location Old Name Area (km2) Centroid Elev. (m) Year or Period of Origin
1. Franz Josef Land Eva-Liv Island 0.4 81◦4200400 N, 62◦4304000 E 20 1950s–1985
2. Franz Josef Land Northbrook Island 18 79◦5705000 N, 50◦1105700 E 308 1986
3. Franz Josef Land Hall Island 59 80◦1103000 N, 58◦1200900 E 420 2016
4. Novaya Zemlya Chernyshev Glacier 0.9 76◦0104800 N, 60◦4800800 E <100 2004
5. Novaya Zemlya Tajsiya Glacier 0.6 75◦5705600 N, 60◦2001200 E <100 2014
6. Novaya Zemlya Upor Headland 6.5 75◦4600300 N, 58◦4002900 E 242 1993–1994
7. Novaya Zemlya South Vilkitskiy Glacier 0.4 75◦3403200 N, 58◦1603300 E <50 2010–2011
8. Svalbard Blomstrandhalva 16.3 78◦5804700 N, 12◦0405000 E 385 1991–1994
2. Materials and Methods
The materials used in the analysis of glacial recession leading to the formation of new islands and straits were collected for the most part via a survey of available maps and satellite images of all three European Arctic archipelagos, maps and images from different time periods since 1909–1910. The following collections of digital maps and satellite images at scales ranging from 1:100,000 to 1:500,000 were examined and used in the analysis in this paper:
--- Norwegian maps of Svalbard: TopoSvalbard(2019) [9] Russian maps of the Russian Arctic: Soviet military topographic maps 1:100,000 and 1:200,000 (2019) [10] Landsat from NASA, in: USGSGlobal Visualization Viewer (2019) [11]for 1973–2019: Landsat 1–3 MSS, Landsat 4–5 MSS, Landsat 4–5 TM, Landsat 7SLC, Landsat 8OLI
- Sentinel-2 from ESA, in: Copernicus Open Access Hub (2019) [12]for 2018 and 2019.
Atotal of 8new islands—each occupying 0.4 km2 or more—were discovered in this manner
(Figure 1,Table 1),and their formationprocesswas establishedviaafgure containingat leastthree cartographic pictures—including one before the formation of the island (a map) and a second after its formation (a satellite image).
For Franz Josef Land and Novaya Zemlya we used the aforementioned Russian topographic maps created on the basisof aerial and geodetic surveysfrom 1952[13,14]and publishedin the 1960s and 1970s. For Kongsfjorden in Svalbard, we used a topographic map (1:200,000) based on the Gunnar Isachsen expedition measurements performedin 1909–1910[15]. TheseRussian and Norwegian maps were georeferenced in ArcMap 10.7, based on 10 to 20 common topographical points between satellite images and maps. The RMS error ranged between 10 and 30 m.
The second method of collecting data was a survey of the literature on new islands, mainly on the Internet. This literature consisted mostly of three kinds of popular science notes: (1) originally observed, denoted,and published,as indicatedby Pelto (2009–2019)[16],aswellas some compiledby Pelto (2017)[17]on the Novaya Zemlya and Spitsbergen coasts, and by Sharov (2014)[18], (2) other Internet pages without authors’ names, and (3) Internet pages of press agencies with news.
Apart from analyzing maps, satellite images and literature, direct summer feld investigations of new straits and islands were carried out by us in Spitsbergen. In 1995, one of the authors explored a new strait and island in Kongsfjorden, just after their formation. In 2005 and 2016, bothauthors carried out detailed landscape (including geomorphological) mapping of the coast near the glacial isthmus (formed of two glaciers under recession) being transformed into a new sound between the Skapp Land peninsula and therestof Spitsbergen[5,8,19].
Figure 1. Locationsof new islandsintheEuropeanArctic; location numbersarethe sameasinTable 1.
3. Results: Analysis of New Straits and Islands
3.1. New Island—Former Mesyatsev Headland of Eva-Liv Island—Franz Josef Land
The former Mesyatsev Headland—the northwesternmost part of Eva-Liv Island which is the northeasternmost part of the Franz Josef Land archipelago—was transformed into a small new island[8,18]afterthe formationofanew straitduetotherecessionoftwoice sheetsinthewestof Eva-Liv Island. This must have happened before August 2nd, 1985. On this day, the land area below 300 m a.s.l.—i.e., both ice sheets in the west and the majority of the main eastern ice sheet (apart from its top)—remained free of snow. It is interesting that the surface of the new island decreased severalfoldfrom1985to2018(Figure 2).Inthecaseof further climate warming,theprocessofthe island’s decline will continue and the island will disappear in the nearest future if its bedrock becomes situated below sea level.
Figure 2. Transformation of the Mesyatsev Headland (of Eva-Liv Island, Franz Josef Land) to a new island.
Environmental conditions including bedrock and climate determined the disappearance of two other islands in Franz Josef Land (which were small and similar to the aforementioned one) in the nearest past. Sharov (2005)[13]evidenced that Perlamutrovy (Pearl) Island, near the southern coast of GrahamBellIsland,andthelargestoftheLyurikiIslandsfoundnearthe southerncoastofMcClintock Island were completely overtakenbythe sea. The frstofthe islands disappearedbefore 1984 (Figure 3).
Figure 3. Disappearance of Perlamutrovy Island near the southern coast of Graham Bell Island, Franz Josef Land.
3.2. New Yuriy Kuchiev Island—Former West of Northbrook Island—Franz Josef Land
The former Northbrook Island became divided into two parts due to the recession of glaciers which had flled the bedrock depression (in the north-south direction) in the west. According to RIA Novosti (2012)[20], the new strait and island, taking the westernmost part of former Northbrook Island, were discoveredby an expeditionof the Russian Navyin the summer 2012 and givena navy officer’s name. This island’s origin was not illustrated by any published map or picture. Hence, we made such a fgure using, among other data, a Landsat image from 2006, which showed the new straitand island which occupies18km2[5,8]of surfacearea,at least6years before their discovery. However, afterwards, Landsat 4-5 MSS images from 1986 were found, which serve a proof that the new straitand islandappeared26 years beforethe discoveryof this fact (Figure 4). The said strait formed due to recession of glaciers which had flled a depression in bedrock from both the east and west. It is certain that no shelf glacier existed there in the Little Ice Age and 20th century because the said glaciers were signifcantly declined and fssured, unlike in the case of shelf glaciers or land fastened multiannual sea ice which would have to be fat. Apart from that, the study area had been relatively often and extensively explored. However, it is quite strange that the new strait was not discoveredby international summer expeditionsin 1990–1992[21]. This may have been causedby bad weather and/or sea ice between the two glacial coastlines of the strait; the least probable was a frontalre-advanceoftheglacierswhichre-flledthe strait’sdepressionforsuchashortperiodthen. However,in the 1950s, the glaciers havea clearly smaller extent on both sidesof the strait. Since 1986, the new strait between the two studied islands has been partly flled in with marine deposits and thus narrowed (Figure 4).
Figure 4. Transformationofthe westernpartof Northbrook Islandintothenew IslandofYuriy Kuchiev.
3.3. New Island—Former Littrov Peninsula of Hall Island—Franz Josef Land
The easternpartofHall Island became separatedfromits mainland betweenin2016[6]dueto the same, as described above, process of progressive narrowing of the glacial connection between the former Littrov Peninsula and the rest of Hall Island. In fact, two ice (glacial) sheets—the bigger one in west and smaller one in the east—split due to recession, i.e., decreasing glacier thickness (lowering of their surface) under the summer ablation of ice (after ablation of snow cover on ice sheets). The process was attentively observed and described by Sharov and Zaprudnova (2014)[22]but their labeling of the glaciers’ junction as an “ice bridge” is not correct because the strait depression had been flled by clearlydecliningandfssuredslopesoficesheets,andnotbyafatshelfglacieror land-fastenedseaice (Figure 5). This islandisthe biggest—59km2of surfacearea—ofallnew islands whichhave appeared in the European Arctic.
Figure 5. Transformation of the Littrov Peninsula (of Hall Island, Franz Josef Land) into a new island.
3.4. Two New Islands—North and South Coasts of the Pankratyev Peninsula—Novaya Zemlya
Two small new islands became freed from underneath tide-water glaciers on the northwestern coast of Novaya Zemlya, certainly after the year 2000, but before August 27th, 2014 or the day of the frst Landsat image, which showed the new islands and straits. The bigger, northeastern island is situated more than3kmfromtheicecliff of Chernyshev Glacier, while the smaller, southeastern island ca.2kmfrom thefrontofTajsiya Glacier. Both tide-water glaciers areina stateof shrinkage since at least the 1970s. The two islands formedfrom sub-glacialrock hills surroundedby depressionsin bedrock, covered with the thick ice-tongues of glaciers at the end of the Little Ice Age (beginning of the 20th century). Both the islands, together with a strait dividing them from the glacial coastline, appearedduetorecessionofonlyoneglacier(Figure 6).The appearanceofboththese islandswas evidencedbyPelto(2017)[17]aswellasZiajaand Ostafn(2019)[8].
Figure 6. Uncoveringoftwosmallnew islandsfrom underneaththeTajsiya(left)andChernyshev(right) glaciersonthecoast,respectivelysouthandnorthofthe Pankratyev Peninsula,NWNovayaZemlya.
3.5. New Island—Former Peninsula with Upor Headland—Novaya Zemlya
Therecessionof Krivoshein Glacier,foundinthe northwestofNovayaZemlya,ledtothe formation of a strait which isolated the former peninsula with the Upor Headland from the glacier’s ice cliff just before the year 1994. A relatively high elevation of the former peninsula above the glacier in 1971 and visible sites withcontinuous vegetation in 1994 evidence the location of this area outside of the maximum glaciers extentinthe LittleIceAge (Figure 7). Hence,the new island was formeddueto recession of only one glacier (contraryto the aforementioned islands of Franz Josef Land) and the island’s surface area had not been completely covered by glaciers earlier (unlike the new smallislands of Novaya Zemlya mentioned above and below). The appearance of this midsize island—6.5 km2 in area—was describedby Pelto (2017)[17]as well as Ziaja and Ostafn (2019)[8]. The new strait between the islandandits mainlandis1kmwide,andthe distancetothe tide-water glacierfrontis5km.
Figure 7. Transformation of the peninsula with Upor Headland to a new island, NW Novaya Zemlya.
3.6. New Islands—Front of South Vilkitskiy Glacier—Novaya Zemlya
Two new small rocky islands (and one islet in between) became uncovered from underneath SouthVilkitskiy Glacierin the northwestof Novaya Zemlya after the year 2010 (Figure 8). According to our interpretation of Landsat and Sentinel-2 images, the bigger of the islands, which occupies
0.4km2of surfacearea,and showninTable 1—became separatedfromthe glacierin 2010–2011,while the smaller island—0.2 km2 of surface area only—appeared in 2017–2018. The formation of the two islands was evidencedin 2017by the Russian State Corporation “Roskosmos”[23]and Pelto[17]. The morphogenesis of these new islands and straits (and the glacier’s cliff)is the same as in the case of a new island north and south of the Pankratyev Peninsula.
Figure 8. Uncoveringof two small new islands and one isletfrom under SouthVilkitskiy Glacier,NW Novaya Zemlya.
3.7. New Island–Former Bloomstrandhalva Peninsula–Svalbard
The only new island, apart from islets, on the Spitsbergen coast (the biggest island of the Svalbard archipelago), occupying 16.3km2of surfacearea(Table 1), became transformedfromthe former Bloomstrandhalva peninsula in Kongsfjorden, as resultof a decrease in the thickness of the Blomstrandbreen glacier[5]. Ablation of the ice surface ofthe glacier’s tongue led to is declinein the area of the depression of bedrock, which became a new strait in 1991–1994. In 1995, one of the authorssailedthroughthisstraitbyboat.Aswecansee,threenewislets(not includedinTable 1), appeared in the strait—two of them before the 1990s and the thirdafterward. Before the glacier’s recession, the islets consisted of rock hills stretching from the bedrock depression above sea level (Figure 9). The patternof formationof these isletsis the same asin the caseof the aforementioned former peninsula with the Upor Headland (in Novaya Zemlya) because it certain that its area had not been coveredwithglacierduringtheLittleIceAge.Thisis evidencedatamapfrom 1909–1910[15].
Figure 9. Transformation of the Blomstrandhalva peninsula into a new island in Kongsfjorden, NW Spitsbergen.
3.8. Numerous Small Islets in Many Different Areas
Apart from the aforementioned new islands, occupying 0.40 km2 of surface area, and islets nearby, manysmallisletsappearedatthefrontsofrecessing glaciers.Theyaremostlyrocky,formeddueto the transformations of small hills (protruding up from depressions) which had been covered with the glacier tongues before glacial recession, e.g., an islet occupying 0.06 km2 of surface area on the eastern coast of Northbrook Island. However, some of the new islets are built of moraine and marine deposits accumulated by glaciers or the sea, e.g., the former Morenetangen headland on the northern edge of Isbukta (eastern Skapp Land coast, SE Spitsbergen).
12 new islands were discovered by expeditions of the Russian Northern Navy along the coasts of FranzJosefLandandNovayaZemlya since2013[24,25].Thebiggestofthe islets,ca. 0.13km2in surface area, was uncovered from underneathVize Glacier in the northwest of the north island of NovayaZemlyaatthe beginningof2016[26,27].
4. Islands at the Stage of Formation
According to our observations on satellite images, there are also numerous potential islands, i.e., islands at the stage of formation.
The biggest of the potential islands, not only in the European Arctic but also in all the Arctic, is Skapp Land—the southern Spitsbergen peninsula occupying ca. 1300 km2 of surface area. Its path towards a quick transformation into a new island, after the connection of two opposite fjords due to therecessionoftheglacial isthmus betweenthem,was describedbyZiajaand Ostafn(2015,2019)[5,8] and shownby Grabiec et al. (2017)[28].
Asmall islandis currently formingin the inner partof Kongsfjorden,inNW Spitsbergen.Two or three additionalnewsmallislands,alsouptoca.0.40km2insurfaceareaeach,mayappeardueto furtherrecessionof the tide-waterVasilievbreen glacier’sfront (which was,in fact,a glacial piedmont cliff of many Skapp Land glaciers, now in the state of division) in SE Spitsbergen.
Anew small island, ca. 0.40 km2 in surface area, is now at the stage of formation along the northeastern coast of Northbrook Island (Franz Josef Land).
Two new islands are being uncovered from underneath the front of Krayniy Glacier along the northwestern coast of Novaya Zemlya (its northern island) between the Pankratyev Peninsula in the northandthenewislandwiththeUpor Headlandinthe south—asshownbyPelto(2017)[17]who also provides a few other examples of such a process in Novaya Zemlya.
5. Discussion
The formation of the new straits and thus islands is obviously conditioned by the recession of tide-water glaciers which had flled these straits’ depressions (below the sea level) in bedrock and covered, partlyor completely, these bedrock elevations (above the sea level), which became the new islands in question. Hence, the assertion that within ”the ice cover of the north island of Novaya Zemlya( ... )thepositionof ice margins hasremained unchanged over the last78 years”, madeby Ehlers et al. (2015)[1], may be true of land-terminating glaciers but it is not true for tide-water glaciers, at least in the aforementioned areas with new islands and straits formed since the end of the 20th century andin the beginningof the 21st century (Figures 6–8).
Moreover,citing Zeebergand Forman(2001)[29]and Zeeberg(2002)[7]asasourceofthis assertion isnot convincing becausea signifcantretreatof tide-water glaciersinandaround northwest Novaya Zemlya,in the Barents Sea,is statedin both these publications. Certainly,in both publications,itis evidenced that the eastern extent of land glaciers of the northern ice cap of Novaya Zemlya, from the Kara Seaside, did not change signifcantly after the Little Ice Age during the 20th century. According to Zeeberg(2002)[7], “Novaya Zemlya’s land-based northeastern ice margin, extending overa distance of 150 km, varied little between 1952 and 1993 and in places is inset behind ‘Little Ice Age’ moraines”. However, this does not refer to the tide-water glaciers of the northwest.
In addition, the tide-water glaciers describedby them[7,29]are not the same as the glaciers which have produced new straits and islands due to their recession, as noted in the present study.
AccordingtoSunetal.(2016)[30],themeltingof tide-waterglacierswas“themost signifcant contributor to the ice loss” in Novaya Zemlya, in the 21st century. Also, the new glaciers inventory for Novaya Zemlya[31]showed thata bigger area has been abandonedby glaciers than transgressed by them.
Melkonianetal. (2016)[32]reportedgeneralicelossfromtheglaciersofNovayaZemlyabasingon their newest satellitedata analyses. Also,inFranzJoseflandglacierretreatiswidespreadandingeneral atrendofincreasingglacier thinningis observedfromtheNE towardstheSW(Zhengetal.2018)[33]. Theprocessof glacialrecessionis even more intensivein Svalbard[5,8,19]. Hence, subsequent coastal areas will become transformed into new islands and straits within the studied archipelagos.
6. Summary and Conclusions
The described change patterns which have altered signifcantly the map of the Arctic are being observed and describedbya comparatively small numberof authors: Pelto[16,17], Sharov with collaborators[13,18,22], as well as Ziaja and Ostafn[5,8,19].
There are three morphogenesis pathways of the new islands:
(1)
simultaneousrecessionofglaciers (includingicesheets)frombothsidesofadepressioninbedrock being a potential strait—typical in Franz Josef Land,
(2)
uncovering a rocky hill (which protrudes from a depression in bedrock) from underneath a receding glacier—often in Novaya Zemlya and Svalbard,
(3)
recession of one glacier which had reached a rocky fragment of a coastline (e.g., headland or peninsula), being a potential new island, during a maximum extent of this glacier in the Little Ice Age (in the beginning of the 20th century)—in Svalbardand Novaya Zemlya.
Thelasttwo morphogenesis pathwaysmaybe combinedintoasingleprocessinaglacierrecession leading to a new island’s formation since the end of the Little Ice Age. This has often happened in Greenland[8]. However,thishasnotyet happenedintheEuropeanArctic.
New straits and islands are at the stage of formation and will be formed in the European Arctic in the event of further warming or stabilization of current climate conditions. This process will be becomereversedin the eventof climate cooling.
Author Contributions: Individual contributionsofboth authorsarethe same(50%each). Nevertheless,W.Z.was responsible for the text and K.O. was responsible for the fgures.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Acknowledgments: The two anonymous reviewers are thanked for their notes which enabled us to improve the paper’s content. G. Zebik from the Jagiellonian University in Poland is thanked for his assistance in proofreading the text, and A. Psomas from the Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research is thanked for consultation.
Conficts of Interest: The authors declare no confict of interest.
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