Monographs and Studies of the Jagiellonian University Institute of Public Affairs Recent Researches On Social Sciences Edited by Roman Dorczak Hasan Arslan Rafał Musialik Krak 2018 The publication was financed from the founds of the Jagiellonian University Faculty of Management and Social Communication Reviewer: Dr. Aleksander Marcinkowski , Jagiellonian University Series editing: Chief Editor: dr hab. Ewa Bogacz-Wojtanowska, prof. UJ Secretary: dr Wioleta Karna Scientific Council: prof. dr hab. Łukasz Sułkowski – Chairman prof. dr hab. Aleksander Nowor dr hab. Grzegorz Baran dr hab. Zbysław Dobrowolski, prof. UJ dr hab. Roman Dorczak dr hab. Dariusz Grzybek dr hab. Sławomir Magala dr hab. Grzegorz Mazurkiewicz prof. dr hab. Grażyna Prawelska-Skrzypek prof. dr hab. Andrzej Szopa Publisher: Jagiellonian University Institute of Public Affairs ul. prof. 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Table of Contents Business Administration Emin Baki Adaş Political Identity, Institutional and Interpersonal Trust Among Middle Classes ...................................9 Çiğdem Mine Yılmaz Housing Sales Contract with Prepayment in the form of a Contract with the Mortgage Housing Finance Contract ...................................................................................................................................17 Assiye Aka, Mustafa Burak Keleş Gender Perception Of University Students: An Example Of Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University ........23 Eray Aktepe, Yavuz Güloğlu, Nur Belkayali What If Kastamonu Becomes A Metropolitan Municipality? Problems That Arise From The Participation Of Forest Villages In Metropolitan Municipalities ..........................................................33 Kenan Alparslan, Nuri Akdoğan The Effects of Perceived Discrimination and Status on Self-Esteem: The Mediating Role of Identity Management Strategies .........................................................................................................................39 Alper Tunga Alkan Under Disciplinary Regulations, The Distribution of disciplinary action of Accounting Profession Members and Ranking By Cities: Case of Turkey (2008-2014) ..............................................................45 Arı Kovancı The Fourth Industrial Revolution and Expectations Related to Workforce ..........................................63 Tuğrul Ayyildiz, Ahu Yazici Ayyildiz, Hüseyin Erhan Altun The Impact of Tourism Students’ Personalities on Their Service Orientations ....................................71 Bengü Hirlak, Gamze Ebru Çiftçi, Orhan Balikçi The Effects of Organizational Climate on the Employee Performance: The Mediating Role of Employees’ Creativity ............................................................................................................................81 Azem Duraku Public Framework Contracts in Kosovo, some study aspects................................................................ 93 Orhan Balikçi, Özlem Yaşar Uğurlu The Investigation of Perception of Psychological Contract Breach and Organizational Silence Behaviours In The Context of Demographic Characteristics: Case of Kilis State Hospital ...................99 Kamil Bircan A Meta-Intuitive Analytical Approach to Facility Layout Problem......................................................109 Abdullah Enes Bolat, Fahrettin Eldemir Aircraft Fleet Management by Quantitative Methods .........................................................................117 Rahman Temizkan, Duran Cankül, Gizem S. Sarıkaya Tourism Higher Education Experiences of a Leading Country: The Case of Turkey ...........................127 Neriman Çelik, Aykut Bedük The Effect Of The Servant Leadershıp Perceptıons On Job Satısfactıon .............................................137 Aliyenur Demiroğlu, Mehmet Özer Demir Performance Measurement in Supply Chain Management .................................................................147 Fatma Demircan Keskin, İnanç Kabasakal Future Prospects on Maintenance Through Industry 4.0 Transformation ......................................... 159 Denizhan Demirkol, Cagla Seneler Evaluatıon Of A Student Informatıon System (Sıs) In Terms Of User Emotıons, Performance And Perceıved Usabılıty: A Pılot Study .......................................................................................................167 Çisel Ekiz Gökmen, Süleyman Girgin An Evaluation of Privatization Effects on Employees: The Case of the Thermic Power Plant of Yatağan ..............................................................................................................................................................173 Osman Bayraktar Evolution of Human Resources Management Practices in Japanese Companies ................................183 Evrim Kabukcu The Reflections of Industry 4.0 on the Textile & Fashion Business Processes ...................................191 Hatice Hale Bozkurt The Contribution of Public Relations Studies to Corporate Reputation in Health Care Institutions: Patient Satisfaction Study Sample ......................................................................................................199 Hakan Hotunluoglu, Sercan Yavan Impact of Local and General Elections on Public Expenditure Composition: A Province Based Analysis ..............................................................................................................................................................209 Seher A.Tezergil Ethical Leadership On Employees Of Public Sector and An Investigation Of The Impact Of The Perception Of Trust In A Leader On Ethical Climate, with the Structural Equation Modelling .........219 Merve Kalayci, Sevgi Ozturk Recreational Activity Habits of Undergraduate Students and Factors Affecting Their Habits: The Case of Kastamonu University Landscape Architecture Department Students ...........................................231 Zeynep Arıkan Imputed Rental Value Implementation for Real Property Income in Turkey .....................................243 Engin Cakir, Mehmet Can Doğaner Application of Multi-Criteria Decision Making Approaches for Personnel Selection in A Private Hospital ...............................................................................................................................................247 İrfan Yazicioğlu, Ersan Erol, Gizem Sultan Sarikaya The Impact of Organizational Commitment on Emotional Labor in Food and Beverage Establishment ..............................................................................................................................................................259 Guntekin Simsek, Azize Rana Arkadas Impacts Of Qr Code And Rfıd Technologıes On E-Tourısm Applıcatıons ...........................................269 Erkan Bil, Tanju Güdük, Gülay Keskin Study of Relationship Between Five Factor Personality Theory and Career Decisions: A Research on Gçeada Vocational School Students ................................................................................................277 Hüseyin Şenkayas, Okan Ertosluk Rısk Factors And Strategy Development In Fresh Fısh Cold Chaın Logıstıcs ..................................... 289 Hüseyin Şenkayas, Emre Danişman, Şükrü Uzundağ Rısk Management In Dangerous Substances Transportatıon On Raılway ..........................................297 Seçil Bal Taştan Organizational Psychosocial Factors as Predictors of Work Exhaustion and Occupational Commitment: An Extension of the Job Demand-Control-Support Model ..........................................305 Hakan Yaş An Assessment on the Environmental Protection Expenditures and Services of the Municipalities in Turkey ..................................................................................................................................................317 Economics Łukasz Ambroziak Changes in exports of the Central and Eastern European countries: An Analysis İn Value Added Terms ..............................................................................................................................................................327 Thomas Chatzigagios, Vasileios Pontios he tax policy of direct business taxes in the EU ..................................................................................339 E.Yasemin Bozdağlıoğlu, Mesut Çakır The Relatıonshıp Between Foreıgn Dırect Investment, Export And Economıc Growth From Turkey’s Perspectıve ..........................................................................................................................................347 Rifat HOXHA, Hamdi HOTI Professional Training As A Condition For The Country's Economic Development– Kosovo .............355 Büşra Kutlu Karabıyık, Muhsin Özdemir Strategic Importance of Enterprise Application Integration in E-Commerce Business .....................361 Gaetano Musella, Gennaro Punzo, Rosalia Castellano The İmpact Of Spillover Effects And Socio-Economic Factors On Pro-Environmental Behaviours ...367 Assiye Aka The Analysis Of Budasiddet (This İs Also Violence) Hashtag From The Point Of View Of Neoliberal Political Economy ................................................................................................................................377 Roland Sahatcija, Ariel Ora, Anxhela Ferhataj The Manager And Organizational Culture İn Albania..........................................................................385 Arı Kovancı Subcontract Work and A Survey on the Quality of Life of Female Workers Working through Subcontractors in the Public Health Sector .........................................................................................393 Ayşe Atilgan Yaşa, İ. Aytaç Kadioğlu International Standards of Budget Transparency: An Evaluation of the Government Budget of Turkey ..............................................................................................................................................................407 Azem Duraku Tax System in the Republic of Kosovo .................................................................................................415 Hüseyin Şenkayas, Emre Danişman, Şükrü Uzundağ Order Collection in Warehousing.........................................................................................................427 Umut Evlimoğlu, Ali Kemal Başbuğ An Econometrıc Analysıs For The Turkısh Automotıve Sector ...........................................................435 Oktay Kızılkaya, Ferhat Öztutuş Political Risk and Inflation: Evidence from Turkey .............................................................................447 Gökhan Konat, Mehmet Temiz The Cointegration Relationship Between Interest Rate And Exchange Rate: The Case of Turkey ..............................................................................................................................457 Hatice Küçükkaya, Yasemin Bozdağlıoğlu Panel Data Analysis By Selected Variables Of Income Inequality In European Countries .................465 Ahmet Öztel, Ayhan Karakaş, Ahmet Aslan Green Star Hotel Selection with Fuzzy TOPSIS Method: Case of Istanbul ..........................................473 Hakan Bay Advance Ruling Practice in Turkish Tax Law and Its Outcomes .........................................................487 Hakan Bay Tax-Related Aspect for Real Property Commerce in Turkey................................................................493 Zeynep Arıkan Taxation of Athletes in Turkey ............................................................................................................505 International Relations Hamdi HOTI, Rifat HOXHA Diaspora's Role İn İncreasing Of Remittances And Their İmpact On Kosovo's Economic Development ..............................................................................................................................................................511 Ceran Arslan Olcay Economic Relations of Turkey and European Union within the Context of Revision of Customs Union ..............................................................................................................................................................517 Ali Bilgenoğlu The Ideology of Muammar Al-Qaddafi and His Theory of New State Formation in Libya According to the Green Book .....................................................................................................................................523 Barış Gürsoy European Union’s Regionalization Efforts As a Foreign Policy Instrument ........................................529 Aylin Konu, Nisa Secilmis, Investıgatıon Of Foreıgn Dırect Investments In Global Competıtıve Dımensıon In Eu Countrıes .....535 Nurdan Kuşat Look at Foreign Trade Relations of the Turkey -Russian Federation .................................................545 Besim Qeriqi Kosovo Liberation Army in the International Discourse .....................................................................555 Nurdan Kuşat Free Zones and Place in Foreign Trade of Turkey ...............................................................................561 Bilge Senturk Development of World Health Indicators in The Shade of Neoliberalism ..........................................571 Suat Dönmez International Community and Intervention Culture: Examining of a coalition military intervention against Libya in 2011 ...........................................................................................................................581 Yücel Bozdağlioğlu, Hikmet Mengüaslan Conflicting Roles of Turkey in the Middle East: Foreign Policy of Justice and Development Party and the Arab Spring ....................................................................................................................................591 Finance Durmus Sezer, Umut Tolga Gumus, Hatice Can Ozic Financial Performance Evaluation In Turkish Banking Sector Wıth Grey Relational Analysis Method ..............................................................................................................................................................599 Serkin Sahin Alternative Financing Techniques for Entrepreneurs and Entrepreneurship Centers in Turkey........607 Umut Tolga Gümüş, Çağrı Köroğlu, Ahmet Fatih Kiliç, Mustafa Şahin Effect Of Fınancıal Statement Rates On Actıve Profıtabılıty: A Workıng On Cement Fırms In Ise .....619 Hacı Arif Tunçez, Aytaç Demiray, Alper Tunga Alkan Impact Of Globalization On International Accounting Standards.......................................................625 Utku Beyazit, Gozde Cinar, Yesim Yurdakul, Aynur Butun Ayhan An Examination of The Relationship Between Internet Addiction And Parenting Attitudes in Adolescents .........................................................................................................................................629 Political Identity, Institutional and Interpersonal Trust Among Middle Classes Emin Baki Adaş Introduction We are living in an age of uncertainties, eroding trust and heightened sense of risks. The changes in technology, economy and society have undermined our trust in institutions that are essential for the functioning of modern society. Hence, the erosion of general trust in the institutions has become the most salient aspects of the debate on “risk society” and late modernity recently. While it is true that increasing risks, threats, and the erosion of trust in society and institutions is affecting our social life, one of the most important challenge for social scientists is to research empirically how the trust and distrust is distributed across different societies and across various social groups within a society. Indeed, comparative data and research show that trust is unevenly distributed among countries and within society among different social groups (Alesina and Ferrara, 2000; Hosking 2014). The researches indicate that level of economic and social development, nature of political regimes in society and characteristics of individuals such as class, education and racial, or ethnic identities have important consequences for the production of trust and distrust (Hosking, 2014; Sztompka, 1999; Hardin, 2002). In this context, this paper attempts to analyze institutional and general trust in Turkish society based on an empirical research on the member of traditional and new middle classes in İzmir. The paper argues that while the generalized trust has been markedly low in Turkey, the trust in social and state institutions is not evenly distributed among different social segments of Turkish society. The political identity and ideology appears as one of the most important factors in the production and maintenance of the level of trust in social and political institutions in Turkish society. Theoretical Perspectives on Trust Trust is the most fundamental element of social system in modern societies. The way we relate to each other, trust or distrust in others, in institutions determines our social interaction (Hosking, 2014; Lewis and Weigert, 1985). Classical sociologists, such as Durkheim, Simmel and more recently Luhmann (1979), Putnam (1993) and so on, all have emphasized the importance of trust for the functioning of economy, politics and society in general (Hosking, 2014; Sztompka, 1999). As modern societies have become more and more complex, social cohesion and cooperation required generalized trust for interaction among fellow citizens in everyday life and for institutions in reproduction of the societal effects, i.e. the belief in the workings of institutions for the general public good as well as feeling of belonging to the same community. For the maintenance and the reproduction of trust, there are four fundamental conditions: normative coherence, openness, accountability and stability (Sztompka 1999). Normative coherence refers to “the confluence of law, morality, and custom to provide a set of norms that facilitate interaction among individuals confidently. The opposite is normative incoherence, or what Durkheim called anomie, within which distrust is much more likely to be the default option in social interaction”. Another factor that reinforces the culture of trust among citizens is the degree of openness and transparency in society. It is important for citizens “to have information about how institutions and government function and to access to information and comment on their actions and decisions in public”. This is obviously related with the democratic norms and principles of freedom of speech and the right to obtain information from public institutions. In a society “where there is a lot of information kept secret or too complicated to understand, trust is likely to be withheld and rumors, gossip, and conspiracy theories will become abound, and people will be more prone to look for ‘enemies’.” Accountability, on other hand, refers to another important component of democratic societies whereby the public is ensured that if things go wrong, those responsible from this wrong-doing would be identified and be held “responsible and if possible obtained some redress for damage. This is a Emin Baki Adas guarantee that power will not be routinely abused and obligations will normally be respected” (Hosking 2014). Many critical social theorists argue that today we live in an era of eroding trust and heightened sense of risks and uncertainties. Transformations in economy and society associated with neo-liberal global capitalism have undermined the belief in the ability of modern political and economic institutions to solve the problems facing modern societies (Stiglitz, 2002; Baumann 1999). Social theorists conceptualized contemporary societies as the advent of” risk society,” (Beck, 1992), “reflexive modernity” (Beck, Giddens and Lash, 1994), and/or “liquid modernity” (Baumann, 2000). These conceptualizations, in their own terms, define contemporary societies marked by heightened sense of risk, uncertainty, insecurity and widespread fear; hence the erosion of trust in modern political, economic and cultural institutions that were once enjoyed popular support and high legitimacy. Although we may live in an era of declining trust that effect all societies in various degrees, comparative data show that there are significant differences across societies and within each society among different social groups in terms of trust and distrust to others, and to political and social institutions. Societies with relatively low economic inequality and democratic political culture tend to still maintain high trust level. Conversely, countries with high economic inequality and authoritarian political cultures are marked by low-trust level. While in democratic societies generalized trust in the functioning of economy, politics and symbolic representations (cultural values and law) creates basis of social order, totalitarian societies create a cultural and social climate wherein the “socialization of distrust” becomes the basis of social order (Markova, 2012; Hosking 2014). In addition to this macro-level context, at the micro level, trust seems to be correlated with individual characteristics, including education, income and class position, and imagined or real sense of being discriminated in accessing to valued material and symbolic resources, i.e., belonging to a disadvantaged minority groups (Alesina and Ferrara, 2000). Against this theoretical backdrop, in the following pages, first, I would like to provide some macro level data to situate Turkey in a global context, and then I will present the research findings based on the case study of trust among middle classes in İzmir. Method and Data The data in this study comes from both secondary and primary sources. In order to situate Turkey comparatively in a global context where Turkish society lies in the distribution of trust and social capital, World Value Surveys (1990-2015), World Bank data on economic inequality and Democracy Index compiled by Economist Intelligence Unit are utilized for comparative analysis to determine relational factors associated with trust level. Local level analysis is based on the case study of the members of middle classes in İzmir. The fieldwork in İzmir was carried out by a group of sociology students at İzmir Economy University in October and November 2017. The sample consisted of 271 respondents living in various districts of İzmir in order to capture various segments of middle class. For the difficulty of random sampling, the purposive sample method was used to select appropriate respondents for the study. Sample of middle classes was divided into two general segments: Traditional middle class which defined on the basis of the position within economic structure. Traditional middle class was composed of small scale shopkeepers, manufacturers and service sectors small business owners; new middle class was, on the other hand, defined as those group individuals who hold university degrees in various academic fields. They owe their position in the economic structure and society to high qualifications and credentials thanks to higher education. New middle classes included engineers, doctors, teachers, pharmacists, nurses, economists, lawyers, psychologists, engineers, low rank public servants etc. The data were collected through face-to-face interviews. The questionnaire consisted of multiple set of questions inquiring demographic profile, socio-economic background, nature of their work and various attitudinal and opinion questions on political, social and cultural values and orientations. The data was analyzed using SPSS 24. In addition to basic descriptive analysis, principal component analysis and chi-square statistical significance test were carried out in order to determine the interrelationship between the trust and other sociological factors. Political Identity, Institutional and Interpersonal Trust Among Middle Classes Trust from a Comparative Perspective Turkish case represents an ‘exceptional case’ in terms of the level of economic development and trust; while Turkey is ranked 18th largest economy, she has one of lowest trust score in the world. Level of general trust in institutions and among citizens is low; social and political polarization is very high. Comparative data show that impersonal trust, i.e., trust in others has consistently been low. The following graph ranks countries in terms of trust level based on the World Value Survey periodically carried out in several countries in the world. The data utilized in this graph represents average trust measured in different data collection rounds since 1990. At the top of list are Norway, Sweden and Netherlands with the trust level is above 50 percent while at the bottom of the list lies Turkey, Rwanda and Zambia with less 10 percent of the population reported that they trust others people. Turkey surprisingly ends up at the end of the list and appears to be in the league of very low-trust countries which highly economically underdeveloped countries. Comparative data and studies show that trust level is strongly correlated with countries’ level of economic development, income inequality and the nature of political regimes (Ortiz-Ospina and Roser, 2017; Alesina and Ferrara, 2000). For instance, Putnam’s famous and controversial study drew an important association between social capital and democracy (1993). Obviously, one of the most important dimension of social capital is general social trust in population, which facilitates high level of cooperation and participation in civic organizations. Emin Baki Adas Source: The data is compiled from Economic Intelligence Unit (EIU) Democracy Index 2006-2016; World Value Survey (WVS) 1990-2015; World Bank Data on Gini Coefficient, available at http://go.worldbank.org/9VCQW66LA0; http://ourworldindata.org . The scatter graph above shows interrelationship among interpersonal trust, economic inequality measured by Gini coefficient and the nature of political regime based on democracy index using 60 different factors in classifying countries. Green dots in the graph represents countries with full democracy; blue dots signify countries with flawed democracies; black ones are countries with hybrid regimes and red ones are authoritarian political regimes. Gini coefficient demonstrates income inequality within a country: the higher Gini score represents higher in equality. There is a negative correlation between trust and economic inequality, and positive correlation between trust and democracy. That is to say, lower the economic inequality, higher the trust level, and as the level of democracy increases, so does the interpersonal trust in that society. Yellow circle in the graph indicates low level of inequality with full democratic political regime leads to high trust among citizens. With exception of China, all countries such as Finland, Norway, Sweden, Netherlands, etc. in this group are developed countries with low inequality and demonstrating full democratic political culture. Similarly, green circle shows that countries in this group consists of full to flawed democracies with medium level inequality -Gini scoring less than 40-and medium level trust -proportion of trusting population is between 25-40 percent. The red circle, on the other hand, is composed of low trust countries with less 20 percent interpersonal trust and mostly high economic inequality. Majority of the countries in this group are mostly hybrid and authoritarian political regimes. Turkey in this global map unfortunately falls in the red circle with hybrid political regime with high economic inequality (Gini scoring around 40)and low interpersonal trust (around 10 percent). Trust and Political Identity Among Middle Classes Trust is not simply unevenly distributed among countries. There are also significant differences among different social groups within societies as well. Indeed, the data from İzmir show that even within the same class there is a sharp distinction in the level of trust in social and political institutions among the different segments of the middle classes. The following paragraphs present the determinants of trust among the middle classes to show that various dimensions of trust are associated with political ideology and class position of the individuals in İzmir. The data come from both male and female members of the middle class representing various segments. 60 percent of the participants are male and 40 percent of them are female. In terms of age groups, majority of participants (about 66 percent) were born after 1970 while the one third of the respondents were born in years between 1950-1970. Majority of the Political Identity, Institutional and Interpersonal Trust Among Middle Classes research participants (about 60) are highly educated holding university and post-graduate degrees, while about 30 percent have vocational school or high school degrees. Based on occupational prestige scores, 50 percent of the respondents can be defined as upper middle class consisting of physicians, engineers, academicians, lawyer and so on, 32 percent of the participants are member of traditional middle class such as barber, carpenters, small shopkeepers, owners of small cafes and restaurants and so on; and 17 percent of the participants are lower middle classes working in public and private sectors. Similar to the country level data above, overall interpersonal and institutional trust among middle classes appears to be low in İzmir as well. However, there are some important differences in terms of interpersonal and institutional trust. Interpersonal trust among middle classes tends to decline as one moves from informal primary Graph 1. Principal Component Analysis: Associational factors with Interpersonal Trust relations to formal secondary relations, or general trust in fellow citizens. In terms of trust in primary relations and secondary informal relations, there is no statistically significant relationship between class position, gender, education and political ideology. Trust and distrust toward interpersonal relations seems to be statistically not significant, and hence there is no marked differentiations among the different segments of the middle class in İzmir. The above graph represent the result of principal component analysis of several categorical variables such as gender, generations (age groups), class position, political ideology, political party votes, primary trust and trust in others. In this two-dimensional space, while the first dimension (Dimension 1) represents the political ideology and political party affiliations along conservative to liberal scale, the second dimension (Dimension 2) indicates the level of primary trust and trust in others Emin Baki Adas along high to low coordinates. The graph clearly indicates a sharp distinction between liberal and the conservatives. Majority of the traditional middle class are more likely to be politically conservative and moderate voting for ruling party, AKP and the nationalist party, MHP. Politically conservatives are typically male; were born between 1950-1970s. Whereas, upper and lower middle classes in İzmir appear to be politically liberal and more likely to support CHP and HDP. The female members of these classes appear to be highly liberal in their political views and majority of whom consists of young generations born after 1970s. However, old generations also seem to support liberal political parties. While the political identity appears to be rather important in distinguishing social groups in the social space, there is no marked difference in terms of primary and secondary trust among social groups. As can be clearly seen in the graph, the level of trust with other categories are pulled toward to the center which indicates no significant variance across social categories in terms of trust level. Even though not statistically significant, primary trust are relatively lower among politically conservative traditional middle classes compared to the liberal upper and lower middle classes as primary trust falls within boundary of low trust and conservative political space in the graph. Graph 2. Principal Component Analysis: Associational factors with Institutional Trust Although there is not much variance in terms of interpersonal trust among the different segments of middle classes, and hence reflecting low trust culture of Turkish society in general, there is a sharp polarization among different segments of middle classes in terms of institutional trust. As can be seen from the graph 2, the traditional middle classes with politically conservative and moderate leanings are located at high state and high social institutional trust space and majority of whom voted for AKP and MHP in the last general election. In contrast, liberal upper middle classes are positioned at low trust space of the graph and more likely to vote for CHP and HDP. Hence, majority of politically conservative and nationalist individuals are more likely to express high confidence in state and social/public institutions. Gender play somehow a differential role in institutional support as conservative male middle classes with relatively low level of education are more likely to vote for AKP and MHP in İzmir and express high-level trust in state and social institutions. Medium level state and social institutional trust appear to be relatively higher among conservative middle classes than liberal upper middle classes. Politically liberal female upper and middle classes are more likely to have lower confidence in state and social institutions than liberal male members of middle classes. It should be noted that overall trust in various state and social institutions are low in Political Identity, Institutional and Interpersonal Trust Among Middle Classes general among middle classes as the data from fieldwork reveal1. Nonetheless, the political ideology, party vote, gender and class position are important factor in determining trust in state and social institutions. Concluding Remarks The ‘strong state’ and ‘weak democratic tradition’ have undermined historically the development of social capital and trust. Hence low-level trust continuously has reproduced low general public trust among citizens. Turkey consistently has been low-trust society marked by high inequality with an authoritarian political tendency. The basis of the social order in authoritarian societies tends to be ‘the socialization of distrust’ among social groups, wherein belief in conspiracy, rumors and suspicions become normative component of everyday culture, weakening social and political solidarity as expressed by common proverb in Turkey: “you should not trust even your father nowadays!”. Rapid social changes such rapid urbanization, low level of social integration, lack of social welfare support, poverty and social inequalities made citizens rely heavily on family or traditional forms of solidarities. Hence, reliance and trust on family and kinship ties and solidarity has remained relatively high but institutional trust in state and social institutions have been low and in a declining trend. However, trust in institutions and society is unevenly distributed among social groups, which is strongly correlated with political identity and class background among middle classes. Historically, political patronages have been important component of Turkish political culture in accessing and distribution of economic and symbolic resources. Hence political identity and ideology has been important in determining trust level among social groups in their attitudes toward political and social institutions. It seems that class position and educational level is significantly correlated with political ideology and political party support. Traditional and lower middle classes in İzmir is more likely to hold a conservative political worldview and vote for ruling AKP and nationalist MHP. Political ideology and party affiliation is, therefore, highly correlated with trust in state and social institutions. References Alesina, A., & E. La Ferrara. (2000). The determinants of trust. National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper No. 7621, March 2000. Bauman, Z. (2000). Liquid modernity. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press. Beck, U. (1992) Risk society: Towards a new modernity. London: Sage. Beck, U., Giddens, A., & Lash, S. (1994). Reflexive modernization: Politics, tradition and aesthetics in the modern social order. Stanford, Calif: Stanford University Press. Ortiz-Ospina, E. & Roser, M. (2017). ‘Trust’. Published online at OurWorldInData.org. Retrieved from: https://ourworldindata.org/trust [Online Resource] Giddens, A. (1999). Runaway world: How globalization is reshaping our lives. London: Profile Books. Hardin, R. (2002). Trust and trustworthiness, New York: Russell Sage. Hosking, G. 2014. Trust: A History. London: Oxford University Press. Marková, I. & Gillespie, A. (Eds). (2012), Trust and conflict: Representation, culture and dialogue, London: Routledge. Lewis, J. D., & Weigert, A. (1985). Trust as a social reality. Social Forces, 63(4), 967–985. Luhmann, N. (1979). Trust and Power. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. Putnam R. (1993). Making democracy work. Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press. Seligman, A. B. (1987). The Problem of trust. New York: Princeton University Press, Stiglitz, J. 2002. Globalization and its discontents. London: Allen Lane. Sztompka, P. 1999. Trust: A sociological theory. New York: Cambridge University Press. Tilly, C. 2005. Trust and rule. New York: Cambridge University Press. 1 Trust in state institutions ranges between 36 and 75 percent. The proportion of those who express low confidence in parliament is (53 %), in judiciary system (59 %), in politicians (74.5), in government (60 %), in police (45 %) and in the military (36 %). Those who express “no trust” in media, educational system, corporation and health system range between 49 and 70 percent, media and education has the lowest confidence. Housing Sales Contract with Prepayment in the form of a Contract with the Mortgage Housing Finance Contract Cigdem Mine Yilmaz 1.Definition of Prepaid Home Sales Contract The Prepaid Home Sales Contract entered into Turkish Law "Law on the Protection of the Consumer" numbered 6502, which was accepted on 07.11.2013 and entered into force on 28.05.2014.In fact, prior to the TKHK No. 6502, Article 7 of the Law on the Protection of Consumers No. 4077 stated that under the heading "campaign sales", housing for real estate properties could be subject to a pre-paid sales contract. ( Makaracı, 2015, p. 241) In the Law No. 6502, regardless of whether or not the campaign was organized, the fourth part of the "Consumer Agreements" was organized in the fourth section of the book titled "Sale of prepaid housing" following housing financing. The pre-paid residential sales contract between 40-46 Articles is defined in the 40th article as "The contract of the consumer is to pay the sale price of a residential property in advance in cash or in installments and the seller to undertake the transfer or delivery of the real estate after the full or partial payment of the price. In the pre-paid housing sales contract, the parties have the right to pay with the consumer, in cash or in installments, while the seller is obliged to transfer the ownership of the property to the consumer together with the construction of the contract. The provisions to be applied even if the housing is paid in advance or in installments, even if the delivery is carried out at a later date, are again the articles 40-46 of the law on consumer protection which regulate this contract. (İnal, 2014,p. 106; Aslan, p. 526). The sale of prepaid housing is mentioned in the 45th article titled "return without a contract", which may be in the form of a sales promise contract. With the sale promise contract, the ownership of the property can be decided after a certain period of time from the establishment of the contract and after a certain period of time. ( Çabri, p. 206. ) In the phrase in Article 40th 1st colomn, it is understood that the transfer or delivery of the house is postponed to an advanced date, in the 1st sentence of 41/I. the sale or sale of prepaid housing can be made in advance. In this case, a further registration or postponement is delayed. Essentially, the legislator hereby states that after the establishment of the floor easement, the floor easement can be transferred to the buyer, and the completion of the construction is not necessary. The seller will make the delivery after the completion of the dwelling. The mortgaged housing financing contract which can be regarded as a consumer contract in legal nature is borrowing, vedia, suigeneris contract type which contains some features of the proxy contracts and does not conform to any contract type in Turkey Obligation Law. Law on consumer protection, which received loans for housing financing. Art. 3, and housing financing contracts are also counted as consumer contracts. . ( Aydoğdu, p.257)The Housing Financing Agreement is for housing acquisitions; to extend credit to consumers, to lease houses to consumers through financial leasing, to provide loans to consumers under the guarantee of their own, and to provide loans for the purpose of refinancing these loans. In this type of contract, the home financing agency lends or hires. In other words, one of the sides of the curse or rent, the price of the consumer is the price of the act. In the housing financing agreement, the transfer or registration of the real estate and the establishment of the contract are independent of each other. 2.Elements of Sale of Prepaid Housing One of the elements of the prepaid housing sales contract is that the contract is "immovable for residential purposes". This element is stated in both law on consumer protection. Art. 40 and in e section of article 4 of the directive. In the Regulation, "all kinds of independent sections which are used for housing purposes subject to the Law on the Ownership of Houses dated 23/6/1965 and numbered 634, or which are presented for the use of consumers together with the dwelling, are defined as dwellings. However, not all kinds of immovables, law on consumer protectionAs stated in article 40/3, Cigdem Mine Yilmaz a "building permit" may be the subject of a prepaid sale. It is stated that in case of such a contract made without acquiring the building license in its doctrine, sanction is "absolute invalidation". The second of the elements of the contract is the payment of the price in advance or in installments. As stated in law on consumer protection in Article 40/1, the price is paid in whole or in part before the transfer of ownership. This statement does not include clarity about the minimum amount of immovable property to be paid. On the other hand, it is obvious that the whole price can be paid. In this case, against the possibility of the building not being able to be completed, the lawmaker has obliged the seller to issue "building completion insurance" with the 1st item of Article 42 of the Article or to "provide other guarantees and conditions determined by the Ministry". The contravene to the credit guarantee does not affect the validity of the contract. If this irregularity is not remedied, administrative penalty will be applied in the regulation. In my opinion, this provision will not serve to protect the consumers in large quantities of housing sales in quantity. When the regulations on law on consumer protection article 40, are taken into consideration, the easement of the floor is transferred without housing, and the buyer pays the price after this period. The third element of the contract is devolved of immovable property. Based on the legislative regulations, the seller is obliged to transfer the possession and ownership of the immovable property after the payment of the seller's price in whole or in part. With law on consumer protection article 44 a period for housing delivery has been brought. It is stated that the period of transfer or delivery will not exceed thirty-six months, and that the easement of the floor is registered in the name of the consumer, and that the transfer and delivery of the possession will also be considered in the transfer case. 3. Establishment and Provisions of the Convention 3.1Establishment of the Contract The first step in establishing a pre-paid housing sales contract is to provide a consumer pre-notification form, just as it is in a housing financing agreement. In law on consumer protection article 40 section 2, this form has to be given at least one day before the contract is established. In addition to providing information on the scope of the informational obligation, the accountant must also be deemed to include the obligation to advise. As a matter of fact, it is considered that one of the parties has a professional position and that the information liability of this position will be increased when it is highly trusted with respect to its profession. For this reason, it should be accepted that the seller is also under an increased disclosure obligation by the home finance institution. Both must objectively provide all material and legal information relating to the interests of the consumer. The informing obligation must be fulfilled in accordance with article 33 and 40 of the regulation. Written condition is a condition of validity. Information should be made to the consumer himself or his legal representative. Even if the seller / home financing organizations have made this obligation verbally, it will be deemed that the institution has never fulfilled the obligation, since the information due must be made in writing in the form of "Pre-Contract Information Form". The breach of this obligation leads to the "culpa in contrahendo" responsibility as the Pre-Contract Information Form constitutes part of the legal validity form. In such a case, the consumer may claim damages arising from the contractual invalidity. Culpa in contrahendo can also be held responsible if the informing obligation is not exercised as it is, if it has affected the willingness to establish a contract. With the article 40 section 2, the informing form has to be given "at least one day in advance" from the establishment of the contract. However, for the first time in our field of housing financing, one day of informing was given in the 24th Article of Law No. 5582 dated 21.02.2007 "Amendment of Various Laws Related to the Housing Financing System" added to the law on consumer protection 10 / B No. 4077 which was in effect at that time. As a matter of fact, Article 10 / B of Law no. indicates "The contract signed before a working day following the presentation of the Pre-Contract Information Form to the consumer is invalid". The criticism of the doctrine and the conclusion of the applications were changed to "housing finance institutions have to give a precontract information form containing the conditions of the consumer housing financing contract a reasonable time before the contract is established" in Article 33 of Law No. 6502. Housing Sales Contract with Prepayment Again in article 10/B section 2, the contract concluded without conforming to this period was considered to be invalid. However, in the case of the violation of the "informing obligation" as in the case that the construction permit in 40 / III is not observed in the pre-paid housing sales contract, only administrative fines can be applied according to law on consumer protection article 77 / III. This, however, is not compatible with the law in order to protect the consumer. 3.2. Shape of Contract The law on consumer protection, which regulates the Form of the Prepaid Housing Sales Contract, mentions that in Article 41, the sale of the house is registered in the title deed registry, and the promise of the sale is made in the form of a notary. It is thought that the registration of the sale of housing is related to the execution phase of the contract and the lawmaker unfortunately misses this point. Another issue that may actually lead to a dispute is that the sale contract is made in the deed and the proprietorship and the ownership are transferred. ( Makaracı, p. 249) In this case the price will start to be paid after the transfer of ownership. This provision is not compatible with the land registery legislation if it is interpreted as the sale could be made but not to be registered in the title. Establishment of the pre-paid immovable sale promise contract by arrangement in the notary public, Articles 60 and 89 of the Notary Law are consistent with Article 237 of the Turkish Code of Obligations and Civil Code 706. The sanction of not obeying the form does not provide certainty. Namely; In practice, the land registry offices do not have a formal sale contract unless they also have a request for registration. In this case only "promissory sale of real estate" can be done in the notary public as a contract. .( Çabri, p.206) If the case, what will be the validity of the "pre-paid housing sales contract" made outside the land register offices? Regulating shape condition. 41 / I c. in 2 states that "Otherwise, the seller will not later argue the invalidity of the contract to be against the consumer" in the face of this statement, while it should be a deffinite nullity, If the consumer does not propose, he will have real estate sales contracts contrary to what is valid. Article 7 of the Regulation states that the contract must be made in a clear, plain, readable format with a size of at least twelve pints, and a mandatory content must be given to the consumer with a mandatory content. In accordance with the law on consumer protection article 41 / II, the seller will not be able to ask the consumer to make any payment or issue a deed document. According to some authors in doctrin, the statement on the law on consumer protection article 4 / V, "If the form is not observed, these securities will be ineffective for the consumer" is also valid in terms of prepaid housing sales contract. . ( Gümüş, s. 257) The contrary writers state that it is not possible to enforce the judgment because the legislator has not made an arrangement in this direction. ( Makaracı, s. 252) On the grounds that the law does not conform to the law on consumer protection article 77 / I, it is stated that only the buyer can prove its invalidity. The housing financing agreement is invalid if not written in accordance with the law on consumer protection article 32 / II. The regulation that consumers can not argue against the contrary is intended for the purpose of consumer protection and does not differ from the prepaid housing sales contract. 3.3. Right to Renege on a Contract Article 43 of the Law No. 6502 regulates the "right to withdraw" for consumer protection purposes. In the first sentence of the article, the consumer has been given the right to withdraw without any justification and without penal terms within fourteen days. The notification has not been subject to the relevant provisions of the law. However, in the 8th Article of the Regulation on the right of withdrawal, it is stipulated that "the notification of the use of the right of withdrawal should be directed to the seller through notary public offices within this period". Again with Article 43 of the Law, the seller is obliged to inform the buyer of the right to withdraw. The burden of proof that the buyer informed is also loaded to the seller. Despite this obligation to the seller, the sanction of not being informed has not been arranged. If the pre-paid housing sale contract is made with the affiliated loan contract special arrangements have been made with as well as article 43, section 2 and with article 8 of the directive. By law, if the immovable is acquired partially or wholly by affiliated credit, the entry into force of the contract is delayed until the end of the right to withdraw. It is thought that this provision aims to Cigdem Mine Yilmaz remove the consumer's concern about the continuity of responsibility towards the credit establishment in the event of the consumer's surrender after the payment of the seller's price. . ( Makaracı, p. 255) It is stipulated in the regulation and the law that the housing financing agency can not claim costs under any name during the period in which the right of withdrawal can be used. However, in the case of the consumer using the right to withdraw, there is a strange conclusion that, in the expression of Article 43 / III, which regulates the seller to return any kind of document that puts the obligation of the seller and the consumer into debt, the "selling price" If the right of withdrawal is used, it is also obligatory for the seller to notify the establishment of the relevant housing finance immediately. On the housing financing contract, the consumer does not have such a right. 3.3. Delivery of Housing Article 44 of the law on consumer protection the transfer or delivery period for the sale of prepaid housing can not exceed thirty-six months from the date of the contract. It shall be deemed to have been transferred and delivered in the case of the transfer of the possession with the registration of the easement to the title deed registry in the name of the consumer ". In the first sentence of this judgment, it appears that the sale of pre-paid housing is not different from the transfer and title registration of your possession. However, the act of condominium or the completion of the house together with the conqueror of the floor easement tapestry should be separated from each other. The actions of the seller on the solo ownership / floor easement tapestry are different from each other regarding the completion of the dwelling by the consumer unit. ( Özmen&Hamamcıoğlu, p. 52) Namely; If the seller can not make the possession of the immovable even though the seller has done the registration on the behalf of the consumer, the seller will not claim that the debt arising from the sale of the immovable is fully realized by showing the official seal in the deposit. Even more important, it can not be said that the seller does not fulfill the obligations of the law on consumer protection article 44 in case the floor easement is transferred to the consumer, the actual delivery is made but the building permission document can not be obtained. In the light of these criticisms, Article 44 must be understood as "subject to corrective interpretation" in the sale of prepaid housing and the delivery period can not exceed thirty-six months from the contract date. ( Özmen&Hamamcıoğlu, p. 58) This period may be shortened by the requirement of the proportional representation of Law No. 6502, but it can not be extended since it is against the consumer. 4.Consumer's Covenant Rotation 4.1. Causes and Procedures of Rotation In No 6502 law on consumer protection article 45/I, c. 1 "From the date of contract to prepayment house sale, consumers for twenty-four months have the right to return without a justification without any justification ..." The first sentence has been granted the "right to arbitrary return" without any consent of the consumer. However, there are opinions in the doctrine that "the right to arbitrary return" should not be recognized if it is a transfer or registration of the consumer's possession. ( Özmen&Hamamacıoğlu, p.85; Gümüş, p. 272.) However, in the smallest economic crisis or speculation of investors who think that the expected profitability does not exist, and the construction sector will be crushed. The second item of the same article is "If the seller does not fulfill his obligations at all or as required, he can not demand any price from the consumer." Consumers shall not be entitled to any compensation in the event that the consumer is unable to make prepaid payments due to his or her continued loss of profits or because the seller has not accepted the proposal to place a sales contract in a hireable condition in place of the contract. The conditions and consequences of "returning at justified reasons" are mentioned in this context. As it is said in the first sentence, "If obligations are not exercised at all or as required" the right to revert proffered to the consumer is based on the Code of Obligations. This result is already inevitable because the contract lends it to both sides. The second sentence states, in case of he Consumer's death, falling into a situation where they can not make prepayments because they are permanently deprived of earnings, it is seen as a "justifiable reason" for the seller not to accept the proposal to put the sales contract in a hireable condition in place of the Housing Sales Contract with Prepayment contractor. ( Özmen&Hamamcıoğlu, s. 94 vd. ) It has been accepted that the Consumer can return without consent in case of "selling more than one consumer of a dwelling" with the last paragraph of Article 2 of the Regulation on the Amendment of the Regulation on Prepaid Home Sales dated 11.03.2017. It is also accepted that if there is a project change related to housing with Article 10 of the directive, the consumer can return without a contract. However, in this latter case, ie in the case of a project change, if the change is due to legal necessity or force majeure the right to make a deduction up to two percent of the contract price is granted to the seller with costs like tax, charge etc. In my opinion, in a battle aimed at protecting the consumer, eventhough the coercive source, the protection of the consumer against the traders like the construction companies specialized in the field does not conform to the spirit of the law. The use of the right of rotation has not been connected in any way to the TKHK. However, in Article 9 of the directive, it is stated that the right of return shall be used through a notary public. The law on consumer protection article 32, which regulates the Housing Financing Agreement, does not allow the consumer to arbitrarily return. According to paragraph II of Article 35, if a loan is used, it is stated that the consumer can use one of the elective rights because the house is not delivered at all or as it is. If the consumer uses the right to return without a contract, the seller and the housing financing agency are jointly responsible. 4.2. Consequences of Withdrawal There are also a number of consequences of withdrawal in Article 45 which regulates the withdrawal of consumers from their contracts. . However, these results need to be examined according to the arbitrary or justification of the return. However the lawmaker says that "In case of return without a contract the seller; fees for tax, duties and similar legal obligations arising from the sale or sale promise of the dwelling, as well as two percent of the contract price for the first three months from the date of the contract, four percent for three to six months, six percent for six to twelve months, for twenty-four months, up to eight percent of compensation may be requested " in the 45th article. This provision is subject to narrowing interpretation even if the possession of the immovable is transferred or registered. Even though the seller does fulfill his obligations on the seller, this amount which can be claimed from the consumer in case the consumer still returns without a contract constitutes a kind of return penalty. ( Özmen&Hamamcıoğlu, p. 92) . Where the seller does not transfer or register the consumer, reciprocal acts must be returned depending on the use of the right to return. Essentially, this obligation stems from the obligation to return the enrichment based on the end cause, which lies in the spirit of the law. ( Özmen&Hamamcıoğlu, p. 87). There is no clarity in law on consumer protection whether consumers who use the arbitrary withdrawal right can claim interest for the price paid. However, according to Ozmen, Turkey Obligations Act, which regulates the sale of prepaid installments of Article 269 section II."The buyer may require that the part of the payments he has made that exceeds the withdrawal amount is given to him with his return" may also be applied here. ( Özmen&Hamamcıoğlu,p.87) It is unthinkable that the lawmaker, who has the right to demand a return penalty in the event of arbitrary return, wants to prohibit the willingness of the beneficiary consumer who has paid it. However both has the same practical end result. A special arrangement has been made with the third paragraph of Article 45 section 3, except the case of the lawmakers' acts. This provision shall be given back to the consumer within the maximum of one hundred and eighty days from the date of receipt of the notification of return of the seller to the seller. The consumer will return his / her acquisitions within ten days from the date the seller returned all kinds of documents that put him or her in debt. Conclusion The pre-paid housing sales contract is also set in the Law on consumer protection as it is a consumer contract, such as a housing financing contract. Both contracts have common and different aspects. The housing financing contract is primarily for housing for consumers or renting a house through financial leasing or providing loans under the guarantee of the house. In other words, with a housing financing agreement, a credit agreement is being established to acquire housing, not housing. A pre-paid housing sales contract is a typical sales contract that includes immovable property and debt. Both contracts Cigdem Mine Yilmaz specifically regulated the obligation to inform consumers in order to protect the consumer, and the written contract was established as valid. The right to withdraw from the housing financing agreement, which is not recognized as a consumer, has been recognized as an "arbitrary" consumer for prepaid home sales. In the event that the immovable is acquired through linked credit, the right of withdrawal is only enforced at the end of the period, provided that the credit institution providing the housing financing is bound by the contract. This influences the housing finance contract of the prepaid housing sales contract. Both contracts need to be developed and should be changed in line with criticism of practice and doctrine. References Aslan, İ.Y. ( 2015). Consumer Law, Tüketici Hukuku, Bursa: Ekin Basım Yayın Dağıtım. Çabri, S. ( 2015). 6502 Housing Sales Contract with Pre-Payment in Accordance with the Law on the Protection of the Numbered Consumer, 6502 Sayılı Tüketicinin Korunması Hakkında Kanun Uyarınca Ön Ödemeli Konut Satışı Sözleşmesi, Sektel Bazda Tketici Hukuku Ve Uygulamaları, s. 205-240, Ankara: Bilge Yayınevi. Gümüş, M. A. (2014 ) . 6502 Numbered Consumer Law Commentary, Volume I, Article 1-46, 6502 Sayılı Tüketici Kanunu Şerhi, Cilt I, Madde 1-46, İstanbul: Vedat Yayınevi. İnal, T. ( 2014) . Consumer Law, Tüketici Hukuku, Ankara: Seçkin Yayıncılık. Makaracı, A. ( 2015 ). 6502 Sale of Prepaid Housing in Accordance with the Law on the Protection of the Numbered Consumer, 6502 Sayılı Tüketicinin Korunması Hakkında Kanun Uyarınca Ön Ödemeli Konut Satışı, Yeni Tetici Hukuku Konferansı, ( Makaleler –Tartışmalar) , İstanbul, 239-259. Özmen E.S.&Hamamcıoğlu G.V. ( 2016 ). 6502 Housing Sales Contract with Pre-Payment in Accordance with the Law on the Protection of the Numbered Consumer 6502 Sayılı Tüketicinin Korunması Hakkında Kanun Uyarınca Ön Ödemeli Konut Satış Sözleşmesi, İstanbul: On İki Levha Yayınevi. Gender Perception Of University Students: An Example Of canakkale Onsekiz Mart University Assiye Aka, Mustafa Burak Keles 1.Introduction Even if the gender perception varies widely within different cultures and societies; it reflects a universal reality in which women are subject to some common distinctions due to the role they are placed in. This reality seems to go on for a long time in the social structures in which various features of persistent and patriarchal thought is embedded in. With the awareness of this situation, this research tries to determine what the gender perceptions of the students in the higher education institutions are, and by this way, it tries to unearth whether higher education plays a decisive role in this distinction or not. In doing so, the research attributes to the fundamental views of cultural and liberal feminism that approaches women as individuals and as subjects. In the following, the gender-feminism relationship will be the first to take place and the basic arguments of the seven components of liberal and cultural feminism will be given forth, and afterwards the data obtained from the field study will be underlined. 1.1.Gender-feminism Sex refers to the socio-cultural completeness of women and men, the way in which societies distinguish women and men from each other, and the social roles societies give to them both. The distinction between sex and gender has been used to deal with the general tendency of the secondary position of women under the provision of menbased on women's anatomies. In a way, women and the bodies of women have been and are still held responsible for their secondary status in society. 'Gender is a matter of culture, points to the social classification of men and women as masculine and feminine' (Bhasin, 2003, p. 1-2). When the difference between sex and gender is to be drawn to the extreme in a logical manner, it is suggested that there is a fundamental discontinuity between biological sex and culturally constructed genders. For now, even if we assume there are two stable genders, this does not mean that the construction of 'men' will be specific to masculine bodies, and that women will also only give interpretations to feminine bodies (Butler, 2010, p. 50-51). Feminism advocates the mobility of women in various social roles and functions. It is a modernist movement which stands for women to participate equally with men in all areas of modern life and stands up against the social constraints that prevent them from becoming 'free' individuals of the modern world, and to fight against the chains of tradition. For women individually, feminism refers to questioning the general, admirable, established 'perfect feminine' ideal, and leaving behind the mainstream status of women in society for the individual independence, freedom, and self-discovery spirit in which modern ideas were created (Durakbaşa 2002, p. 53). Feminist theory has now and then tended to refer to a time before what some people call 'patriarchal', a time of an origin, a starting point idea that makes possible an imaginary perspective which will prove the history of subordinating of women is contingent. The topics as were there prepatriarchal cultures, were they matriarch or matrilineal, was there a beginning of a patriarchy and therefore, whether the end will certainly come to the fore have been the subjects of the debates (Butler, 2010, p. 91). In the period of 3-5 thousand years after the agrarian revolution, the woman has retreated to the second-class position and the "man is superior than woman" opinion has been placed permanently in the social subconsciousness.The masculinization of potency not only left the women deprived of social rights but also caused the sexual life of women to be restricted to strict rules as well. The male dominated order had to control the sexual life of the society. Because the baseline motivation that kept patriarchy standing still was that the woman being alienated from her own body (Caner, 2004, p. 41). The political assumption that a universal basis for feminism must be found and that it must be found with a cross-cultural identity is often accompanied by the idea that the subordination of women Assiye Aka, Mustafa Burak Keles takes a singular form that can easily be distinguished in the universal or hegemonic structure of patriarchal or male domination. Countless criticisms have been made in recent years because the universal concept of patriarchy cannot account for gender-based oppression in the concrete cultural context. Various concrete cultural contexts in the theories that are based on the universal concept of patriarchy were applied only to find and to show 'examples' of the universal principle that has been conjectural from the very beginning (Butler, 2010, p. 46). According to Beauvoir, gender does not cause social sex, and gender should not be considered to represent or express gender. On the contrary, factually sex is unchanging, gender is acquired; however, gender is a variable cultural construct of sex, and the possibilities of countless and open cultural meaning that a biological sex is instrumental. Beauvoir's theory was reaching to conclusions which seemed radical and which she had not foreseen. For example, if sex and gender are fundamentally separate from each other, it is not possible to arrive at the result that a particular gender will become a certain gender; in other words, it is not necessary for men to interpret masculine bodies, as "the woman should not be the cultural construct of the feminine bodies " (Butler, 2010, p. 191). Nevertheless, sex is largely a biological data, and social gender is the socially constructed pattern of femininity and masculinity are the basis for feminist notion. Exactly what it is the relationship between sex and gender is still controversial.The reason for this is the hardship of determining to what extent biological sex differences affect gender stereotypes and how our thoughts about sexuality structure our biology (Ramazanoglu, 1998, p. 90). 1.2.Liberal feminism The liberal individualism and equality principles have influenced the birth of the First Wave Feminism. The fundamental paradigm of the idea of enlightenment constitutes the idea that the entire universe is governed by simple and mathematical rules. In other words, the image that sets the period of enlightenment from the end of the 17th century to the end of the 18th century is the paradigm of Sir Isaac Newton's simple and rational rules of the universe.According to this paradigm, anything that does not function in accordance with the mind and the mathematical rules of mechanics is considered as insufficient, secondary, real outlandish, unnamed. According to liberal male thinkers, the characteristics of the man is 'mechanical'; the woman belongs to the alienated secondary category. In this context, human (man) has been seen as superior in reasonand has been argued that rationality has the right to govern all other aspects of the truth. That is, rational beings -men -have the right to guide the reason to those who are intellectually deficient -women, non-human beings and to the world (Donovan, 2009, p. 17-19). According to liberal understanding, each person is different; the ability of individuals to develop individually and differently in the infinite variety of these differences is possible if they are realized as equal opportunities (Mitchel, 1998, p. 44). In general, all feminists are struggling for women to have the rights as men have. Because women were imprisoned in the house from the patriarchal / patrimonial period even in the age of enlightenment and even after that. Women who were confined to the house were naturally dominated by the male authority (İlter, 2014, p. 15-16). The liberal feminist theory sees the state as a potential neutral arbiter without its own ideology. Liberal Feminism acknowledges that state is dominated by men and claims that the state and its institutions are generated by the male domination. Men, like women, are an interest or pressure group. The state is a field in which the groups compete or rival with each other, thereforeit is an impartial arbiter amongst them. The methods of the state are legal, but the men have seized them (Hobson, 2010, p. 143). From this point of view, liberal feminist approaches have embraced strategies for greater access and influence (Gelb, 1989, Klein, 1987, Sawyer, 1993, Hobson, 2010, p. 143). Women's activities are an important dimension in liberal feminist theory of the state and an explanatory variable of the diversity among states in terms of women's voice / gender and their effects on gender inequality (Hobson, 2010, p. 143). Liberal feminism put its basis on classical liberal thought which acknowledges that individuals must be free to develop their own abilities and to pursue their own interests. Liberal feminism, which focuses on how gender differences exist between men and women, can be explained by the effects of cultural assumptions on gender differences and social relations (Sevim, 2005, p. 56). Gender Perception Of University Students Liberal feminists acknowledge the society to be a fundamental organization and try to improve the rights and possibilities of women within this organization. They do not only argue against prejudices that obstruct women to have desires and expectations but also support equal rights. Liberal feminists adopt the idea of women being productive in their working lives as well. Some of the liberal feminists recognize the family as a social institution that requires child care and maternity leave for women who want to work. Others argue that freedom cannot be possible for women unless it evolves into a familybased form. Again, liberal feminists say that the woman and man's spirit and rational ability are the same. In other words, according to this approach women and men are ontologically identical (Sevim, 2005, p. 56). Justice and equality are highly crucial for liberal feminists. So, they want three problems to be solved, these problems are as follows; legal discrimination (to abolish discrimination in law against women), institutional discrimination (qualification to be the basis for recruitment and removal of gender as a criterion), social discrimination (destroying interpersonal discriminatory behavior, abolishment of raising children to be male and female according to their gender and raising them as a human-person) (Sevim, 2005, p. 59). Liberal feminism focuses on the removal of laws and legal practices which prevents women from effectively entering the public sphere of life, limit women's activities to domestic activities, and exile women to home and family specific areas. At this point women's rights was addressed in order to influence broad social and legal reforms. Entry of women into the public sphere and especially provision of their participation in economy and thus the desire to attain economic independence of women have been the main aim of liberal feminism (Alptekin, 2006, p. 18). The first feminist wave was born in a liberal movement built on both individualism and equality principles together with thinkers dealingwomen's problems closely within feminist discourses (like John Stuart Mill) as well as with the first leading feminists (like Mary Wollstonecraft). Therefore, what is meant by classical feminism is actually classical liberal feminism. Feminists, who embraced the liberal view, have particularly focused on the elements that restrained women's equality in the nineteenth century, and have attributed women’s backwardness to the social conditioning and discrimination that pushed them to ignorance. In the 20th century, liberal feminists pioneered by Betty Friedan not only showed that there was no difference between women and men, that women were not secondary people, and that they should have all the privileges and power of the privileged men of history. They emphasized that women should be given opportunities and should play a part and should be represented in higher decision-making bodies by claiming that women were not in decision making positions especially in political units, institutions and bodies (Ataman, 2009, p. 15). 1.3. Cultural feminism Cultural feminism goes beyond the rationality, atomistic individualism and legitimate position of the enlightened liberal feminism. Liberal feminism criticized the fact that the enlightened mind in the 18th and 19th centuries confined the woman under male authority as a wife and as a mother. In this direction, they demanded the principle of equality before the law, the right to vote for women, the recognition of equal opportunities for women in education and business, and the liberation of women from private space/ house. Cultural feminism focuses more on the irrational, intuitive and in general collective aspects of life, while acknowledging and supporting the importance of liberal feminism's equal rights visions and self-development for women. In this context, a world that emphasizes collective understanding, emotional ties and the concept of an organic or holistic life is suggested (Üzel, 2006, p.147). On the basis of cultural feminism lies a matriarchal / matrimonial view. In connection with this point of view, it is believed that the domination of men brought destruction, tyranny and war. As in the case of matriarchy / matrimonialism, in which women have the administrative power, we have a civilization without ignorance, poverty and crime. In cultural feminism, matriarchy is seen as -with the expression of a cultural feminist Stanton -"the golden age of peace and abundance"; where patriarchy / patrimony is seen as "the source of tyranny, the source of wars and diseases" (Donovan, 2009, pp. 8384). Assiye Aka, Mustafa Burak Keles Margaret Fuller, one of the first representatives of cultural feminism, defended the organic worldview in her book Woman in the Nineteenth Century (1845), focusing on the intuitive, emotional and spiritual aspects of knowledge, transcending beyond the rational and legal implications of liberal feminism. And she argued that beyond the rationality of the woman, there are intuitive sense of extraordinary feelings (Alptekin, 2006, p. 32). Fuller addressed the "developing self-confidence" phenomenon for women. She expresses that one of the ways of developing self-confidence is the estrangement from the world. By this way women would have the opportunity to discover their true and open nature. Women have an electrical intensity that men do not have. Electrical intensity refers to an intuitive and intellectual ability. This ability that women have is believed to be electrical in motion, intuitive at work and spiritual in education (Donovan, 2009, pp. 72-75). In other words, there are intuitive perceptions of women beyond the rationality, in recognizing the easily perceivable connections between people and all forms of life. She argues that society will radically change with the development of women themselves. Cultural feminism stands against institutions such as religion, family, marriage. For example, Matild Joslyn Gage, a cultural feminist, acknowledged that "the first task of each individual is selfimprovement, that the sacrifice and obedience taught by the Christian Church to women is lethal". According to Gage, the pressure on women stems from the Christian teaching and the Christian thought of creation. She even regards the Bible and Christian teaching as patriarchal products that can be discarded (Donovan, 2009, pp. 85-86). Cultural feminists separate themselves from liberal feminists in terms of their approach to family institutions as well. While liberal feminists respect the holiness of the private space; cultural feminists view the family institution as an obsolete system that restricts women and slows social evolution. According to cultural feminist view, the family is also obstructing social progress because it limits women's development. They oppose the family and marriage institution that restricts mothers as caretakers and cooks, suggesting that the mothers instinctively are neither a good nutritionist nor a talented babysitter. As an alternative, however, they recommend the professionalization of housework. With the proposal of these branches becoming a profession by giving education to women, looking after children and nutrition, women will be saved from being exploited 24 hours a day, and they will earn money for their retirement by working eight hours a day (Donovan, 2009, p. 100). If we scrutinize the cultural feminist approach about the body, we see that this theory concentrates especially on women and the inner talents of women. It is believed that a woman has "an electric or magnetic nature" (as Fuller says), and that it naturally "harmonizes fierceelements". This theory, which focuses on the intuitive abilities of an optimist woman who is against war, is a vegetarian because she is against the murder of animals, suggests that women have a holistic view through these abilities. She has made a connection between the liberation of women and the improvementin the world (Donovan, 2009, p. 77). It has already been stated that cultural feminism does not just defend women’s political, social, and economic freedom against the paternalistic / patriarchal system. According to them women should not be seen as a sexual commodity and should have the right to be in possession of their own body. Because the right to be in possession of one’s own body is the basic condition of freedom. In this context, feminists like Elizabeth Cady Stanton supported the ideas of "voluntary motherhood" or "sexual abstinence" and argued that "birth control" and "abortion" should be left to the choice of women (Donovan, 2009, p 107). Cultural feminism has taken a step forward in sexual freedom and for the first time has approached homosexuality as a natural phenomenon. They advocated homosexual rights -especially lesbian rights(John Katz, "The Unjust Treatment of Homesexuals," 1978: s 567. Alptekin, 2006, p. 34).Cultural feminists are supporters of the freedom of homosexual relations. They think that if these relations are prevented, the individual's development of free personality will be hampered (İlter, 2014, p. 24-25). Below is a comparison of the seven main components from the cultural and liberal feminist perspective (education, culture, marriage, violence, political participation and work life and freedom). Gender Perception Of University Students Table 1. Liberal Feminism and Cultural Comparison of the Seven Components Liberal Cultural feminism feminism Education Men and women should receive the same training as they have the same essence of the man. Education gives women of virtue and dignity. Women should get a good education. Women must complete the educational and intellectual growth. They should receive training to become a must have the same rights as women and men. Culture They defend intellectual culture. Cultural development should be provided with education Patriarchal thought education influences. Women taking education should play an active role in the social structure. Othering situation cools women from education. Woman Culture provides prestige. Women should create its own culture. Women determines the culture of the society be detected in a secondary position. It limits women's progress and obstacles Marriage Marriage reduces the dignity of women. Woman crushed in the institution of marriage. The presence of women in the institution of marriage, merges with that boy. Marriage makes women dependent on men. Assiye Aka, Mustafa Burak Keles Violence State protected The source of the women from violence violence is the and should take the patriarchal period. necessary Violence is not precautions. specific to the nature of man Political participation Work life Women should have the right to vote. Women should have a political and social rights. In democratic regimes certainly women should play an active role in political life. Women should take place in public space. Women should participate in working life. The patriarchal society, women in working life is pushed to a secondary position. It provides the full emancipation of women. They shall have equal rights with men Freedom Be confined to the private sphere of women, prevents freedom. Public space is liberating women Women in management positions they take place; ignorance, social structure is reached where there is poverty and crime. Women should be given the right to vote. Women were confined to the private sphere. Women in business are constantly under pressure. Women's status is superior to that of men. Gender-based division of labor has affected women. Women's liberation means the world to say the improvement Is necessary to get rid of dependence on men for freedom and liberty in the area of family 2. Methods 2.1.Subject of research To determine the gender perceptions of university students. Gender Perception Of University Students 2.2.Purpose of the research The study had two objectives are interrelated. The first seven components of university students (education, culture, marriage, violence, political participation, working life and liberty) to determine the trend in terms of gender. Secondly, this means the production of masculine thoughts with higher education/ manufactured to be able to determine whether the failure is of a decisive role. 2.3.Population and sample The study population (E) is the sum of Çanakkale Eighteen Mart University students studying in the faculty. The study sample (n), while 300 students from twelve schools in universities (150 girls and 150 boys) are. 2.4.Data collection tools A questionnaire was administered as quantitative research techniques in research. Socio-demographic questions in the questionnaire before then to place the male and female students are given the perception of each other will allow them to liberal and cultural feminism seven components for open and closed-ended questions to be addressed in the light. 2.5.Data analysis techniques The data is evaluated by forming the first stage of frequency tables, percent of the sample was obtained and the sample distributions are shown the general features unidirectional frequency distributions. In the second phase in Windows 7 with SPSS 17.0 Staistics progamme, Independent Groups T test, Variance (ANOVA), Chi-square (Crosstabs) Independence, the data are evaluated using multiple regression and factor analysis. 2.6.Hypotheses Hypothesis 1: Education determines determine the meaning of gender perception uploads/ does not determine Hypothesis 2: Women's level of cultural development of the society simultaneously with the progress of development levels vary from culture to culture/ show does not Hypothesis 3: Women's political citizenship rights vary according to culture / show does not Hypothesis 4: Getting married woman of virtue and respectability saves / do not confer Hypothesis 5: Feel free women feel their situation is determining the social structure itself is / is not. Hypothesis 6: The cause of violence against women and the patriarchal structure itself is / is not Hypothesis 7: Women's economic independence makes it easier for them to live as individuals / not easy 3.Findings Table 2. Socio-Demographic Characteristics of Students Variables Frequency Percent Gender Girls 150 50,0 Men 150 50,0 Age 21-23 180 60,0 Faculty Engineering and Architecture 127 23,8 Spent the Longest Living Location 53 Big city 102 34,0 Family Income Status 9 4 1001-2000 Euro 88 29,3 Assiye Aka, Mustafa Burak Keles According to Table 2, 180 (% 60,0) students in the age range 21-23; 127 (%23,8) students in the Faculty of Engineering and Architecture; they spent most of the city life settlement grows 102 (% 34,0); the number of their own without any revenue 292 (%97,3); 223 (%74,4) unemployed student's mother; 88 (%30,3) student's father is self-employed occupations. 4.Conclusions The achievements of the women’s movement in the late 1970s may have indicated that feminists were on the right path. The legalization of abortion, the passage of equal wage laws in some states, and the expansion of women’s access to financial credit were all signs that the women’s movement was working. In fact, the total number of bills passed by Congress with explicit attention to women’s issues between 1970 and 1980 was more than the sum total of all the women-focused bills passed prior to that decade (Davis, 1999; Schmeichel 2011, p. 8-9). Additionally, in 1978, Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) advocates had gained a four year extension on the deadline to ratify the amendment and as a result, “the Equal Rights Amendment [made] feminism a regular part of the daily news and the general public’s conversation” during this time period (Ryan, 1992, p. 111; Schmeichel 2011, p. 8-9). Even if there competing feminisms all around the world and in Turkey, it can be argued that each feminist theory has a tendency to assume that women and men are exposed to discrimination at different rates for reasons arising from gender roles in public and private settings and that they end up taking a political stance to end this discrimination. For example, according to liberal feminists, whom theoretical arguments we have benefited from in this research, women need to have legal, economic, political and social rights just like men. According to them, these exercising rights will be possible if women are visible in the public sphere. By this way, women can really gain the virtue and prestige they deserve. At the same time, women can also be liberated in areas where men have the possession of. Cultural feminists have argued that women's emancipation will culminate the world to be more bearable place and will lead to the level of prosperity to rise. In addition, they argued that by increasing the level of educationwomen will take a more active role in the social structure and in this case women's dignity would increase. In addition to the advocates of liberal feminists on freedom, they stated that women's sexual freedom must also be in the possession of women. And for the first time ever they have defended the naturalness of homosexual and lesbian relations. Furthermore, cultural feminists have advocated matriarchy and argued that patriarchal society only leads to violence and oppression. In the light of these baseline arguments, the basic hypothesis about the educational component developedin this study 'the meaning that isattributed to education determines the gender perception' has been tested. In other words, education has emerged as an important variable in determining the gender perceptions of the university students. Students think that there is positive correlation between the higher education level of women and the greater the degree of virtue and prestige of women. Thus, it was observed that both sexes recognized that education was effective in the formation of gender perceptions. In terms of cultural component, the basic hypothesis of the study is that ‘simultaneous progress of the cultural development level of the women and the social development level of the society differs from culture to culture'. In order to test this hypothesis, the question of "do you think that the level of cultural development of women is in simultaneous progress with the level of development of the society" was asked to students; the students think that the level of cultural development of the women and the level of development of the society are in simultaneous progress. The basic hypothesis in terms of political constituent is "women's political citizenship rights differ according to cultures" expression. The hypothesis on the political composition of the study is supported by whether women parliamentarians exist sufficiently or not. The majority of the students who answered the question that women cannot be administrators gave their answers negatively. On the contrary, students think that women should be managers. Students also supported cultural feminists’ ideal of a social state that if women are rulers, there will no crime or ignorance. The basic hypothesis in terms of the marital component is "the meaning attached to marriage varies according to cultures" statement. The students answered positively to "will marriage bring a virtue and respect to woman" question. Referring to the researches in world and in Turkey it is observed Gender Perception Of University Students that women lean towards marriage. As the liberal feminists advocated in the study, students also supported the idea that "the institution of marriage has given the woman virtue and respect". Many questions were asked in order to analyze gender perceptions in terms of individual / freedom constituent. These are as follows: "In my family, women are subjected to be meddled with their clothes", students were undecisive on this issue. “A woman should experience sexual intercourse after marriage”, students strongly supported this idea. "Woman, a member of the family, should not go out at night with her friends", students are not strongly agreed on the expression of women not going out to be with her friends. These expressions support the hypothesis that "the behavior of women is determined by the social structure". Because the social structure opposes the obstruction of women's freedom. Students did not agree with the expression of how the woman should behave is determined by society. “When a woman does not want to have sexual intercourse, she should be able to reject sexual relations”, students strongly fell into line with this expression. To the question as follows, according to you, is a woman free (family, work, society, etc.) and should young girls live separately from their families when they gain their economic independence; students often expressed impartiality. This question supports the hypothesis that the male (father) subjectindividual (patriarchal structure) that determines the creation of the female subject-individual varies according to different cultures (Women not being able to decide/ cannot decide on their individual preferences in vital decisions about their own lives). It seems that the reason for this is the social / cultural structure’s being the basic element of women's liberation. The hypothesis that was developed about the component of violence was strongly disagreed by the students.To the expression as follows, during the flirting period, a slap is not considered violence and there is a time when the woman deserves violence; students had a strong attitude to disagree.In this sense, the base hypothesis supports the hypothesis that women should seek their rights in the course of violence. To the expression, if someone insults me, I can be forced to use violence to protect my honor; students did not agree strongly. To the expression, if the woman is subjected to violence from her partner, she will hide this situation from everybody; students showed attitude of disagreement. In the face of violence, students think that women should not remain silent. In this question, university students did not support the basic hypothesis that violence can be applied by their relatives in situation and time that the woman deserves. On the contrary, they think women should seek their rights. Referring to the international researches in the world and in Turkey, it has been seen that women exposed to physical and sexual violence in every society. However, this rate differs in the developed countries (USA, UK, Sweden)and undeveloped countries (Africa, Southeast Asia). The rates of physical and sexual violence against women in Turkey is high. Men legitimize this violence for simple reasons, such as women not being able to listen and being unbearable. Law makers must make deterrent laws that will prevent violence in order to reduce violence against women. Laws must be before the social and cultural structure so that violence against women that is embedded in the social and cultural structure can be prevented. In this study, university students thought that it is imperative for women to defend their rights in the event of violence. Hypotheses developed in terms of economic subject / working life components have been supported. In other words, taking part in the working life completely liberates the woman and she should take part in the working life opinion has been supported by the majority of the students. The students strongly disagreed with "it is normal for men to be given preference for promotion who work in the same status "statement. The discourse of liberal feminists has also been recognized by students. Students have ascribed different meanings to the expressions that nursing, secretarial, teaching are more suitable occupations for women and jobs such as military, police, electricity, civil engineering are more suitable for men. In the statement that men should work in professions with a high status, the students showed an attitude towardsdisagreement. Students were on the same page about the statement that women are discriminated against in business life. When asked whether taking part in working life liberates women completely or not, and whether taking part in working life means having equal rights with men or not, students agreed on the participation of women in the working life completely liberating the woman. Assiye Aka, Mustafa Burak Keles As a final word, while almost all the discourse on the seven components of liberal feminists were responsive by the students; the views of cultural feminists were partly accepted by the students. In addition, it can be said that higher education is partly regenerating patriarchalism, and partly in creating a trend towards a more egalitarian point of view. 5.References Alptekin, D. (2006). Feminism in the context of women's rights in third world countries (Unpublished master dissertion). Selçuk University, Turkey. Ataman, M. (2009). Feminism: alternative to traditional international relations theory beam approaches. Journal of Alternative Policies,1(1). Bhasin, K. (2003). Gender (K. Ay, Trans.). 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Feminism mobile university (Ş. Tekeli, Trans.). İstanbul: İletişim Pub. Ramazanoğlu, C. (1998). Feminism and oppression contradictions (M. Bayatlı, Trans.). İstanbul: Pencere Pub. Schmeichel, M. (2011). Feminism, neoliberalism, and social studies. Theory & Research in Social Education, 39:1, 6-3. DOI: 10.1080/00933104.2011.10473445 Sevim, A. (2005). Feminism. İstanbul: İnsan Pub. Üzel, E.(2006). Feminism and nature axis ecofeminism (Unpublished master dissertation). Ankara University, Turkey. What If Kastamonu Becomes A Metropolitan Municipality? Problems That Arise From The Participation Of Forest Villages In Metropolitan Municipalities Eray Aktepe, Yavuz Guloglu, Nur Belkayali 1. Introduction Through the globalization process, economic development policies and their interactions with local communities have brought about the reorganization of public administration and spatial politics in many countries around the world. Urban areas are seen as the new frontiers and the engines of social, economic, and environmental development. Redesigning local governments brings about significant changes in the context of space management, for example, when cities gain wider cross-border jurisdictions that include rural areas. Recent legal regulations in Turkey and policies that expand municipality boundaries into adjacent areas have been the driving force behind urban development and have been influential in the restructuring of rural areas. The most significant changes were a result of Law No. 6360, issued in 2012 which abolished the special provincial assemblies, villages, and large villages in 30 provinces, replacing them with municipalities. In the Ministry of Interior’s 2017 Performance Program, studies on increasing the number of metropolitan cities and the studies on the applicability of the new metropolitan municipal model to the cities with populations of over 400 thousand are causing concern about the legal status of and service provision to the rural areas in the target cities. The most important rural place to be affected by such an arrangement is the Kastamonu province, which is home to the largest forest villages in Turkey. Any changes in service delivery or the legal status of forest villages will deeply affect Turkey’s overall agricultural development, rural areas’ population and management policies as well as provincial development strategy, provincial development plans and rural area policies of the Kastamonu province. The aim of this study is to examine the possible scale of the statistical and managerial effects of the application of the new metropolitan municipal model on the forest villages located within provincial borders, like the Kastamonu province. With this new model, the protection of rural areas, which had been provided previously through law, would be left to urban expropriation, urbanization, and land management policies. In this context, this study focuses on Turkish spatial planning and policy changes that have been fostered by the influence of Law No. 6360 on the metropolitan municipality system. While the Turkish government has undergone huge domestic changes in the last twenty years, indisputably the most important change is the expansion of the metropolitan municipality borders and the abolition of villages in the municipalities. The findings of the paper are based mainly on Metropolitan Law No. 6360, the resulting changes in the legal status of villages and forest villages, and the existence and legal status of forest villages in the Kastamonu province. Most of the existing literature on local politics and metropolitan municipality systems seeks to understand the intensification of the power of the central government over local governments and its effects. Specially, the status of forest villages after the amendment has not been clearly explored in the current literature. The main contribution of this study is the details about recent issues in Turkish urban politics in terms of the changes in legal status of forest villages, which may cause destruction of forests and violations of the rights of the villagers. First, this paper will discuss the fundamental pillars and Turkey’s new urban and regional policy orientations, which have been directed by Metropolitan Law No. 6360 over the last decade. Then, the paper will address how the changes in Turkish spatial planning affects the forest villages and discuss how the metropolitan municipality legal borders and service provision in the rural areas are changed. Finally, the study will assess the possible impacts of these policies on forest villages in the Kastamonu province. Eray Aktepe, Yavuz Guloglu, Nur Belkayali 2. The Status of Villages and The Effects of Law No. 6360 on Rural Cores In recent years, significant changes in the context of legal, administrative, and local participation have led to metropolitan municipalities becoming the sole local governmental unit in 30 provinces in Turkey. In these provinces, metropolitan municipalities have become the only local government unit responsible for urban services related to settlements within their borders, including municipalities, special provincial administrations, villages, and forest villages. With this Law, the legal personality of these small local government units was abolished. According to the arguments supporting the law, metropolises consist of a large city and many satellite towns surrounding it. Cities should not be considered to be only the urban centers. The central population together with the periphery is the basis of the metropolises. In this sense, metropolitan areas cover a large basin. A significant portion of international trade is directed toward metropolitan centers. The metropolitan areas, which are integrated in the global and regional networks, have a high transportation and communication network. Efficiency in services, provisions for zoning plan integrity, and prevention of the waste of resources are also cited as the reasons for this law (Çınar et al., 2013, p. 96). Although Law No. 6360 has affected the scale and structure of many local government units profoundly, villages are the most affected units. The number of village administrations has shrunk from about 34,500 before the enactment of Law No. 6360 to 17,720 after implementation. As a result, the legal personality of 16,563 village administrations (including about 10,000 forest villages) were abolished. Considering that there were about 34,500 villages in Turkey, about 50% of them no longer have village status (Öğdül, 2013). According to Article 7 of Village Law No. 442, the villages are legal entities that may have movable and immovable property. The Village Elder Council may, if it deems it necessary, purchase immovable properties within the boundaries of the village. On the other hand, according to Articles 9 and 12 of Law No. 442, the village settlement plan is adopted with the affirmation of the village council and the approval of the district administration. In addition, the Village Elder Council may decide to sell the land within the boundaries of the village at the current market value. However, after the adoption of Law No. 6360, these laws have lost their validity in the villages within the borders of the metropolitan municipality. Because villages were abolished and turned into neighborhoods, these areas have lost their legal ability to buy and sell immovable property. Villages that turned into neighborhoods will not be able to benefit from the rights and privileges provided before Law No. 6360 because neighborhood administrations are not legal entities (Göküş and Alptrker, 2016, p. 73). Villages turned into neighborhoods cannot access credit, make legal transactions, or be parties in a court case. These new neighborhoods do not have their own budgets and, therefore, cannot have any assets (Gzler, 2007, p. 205). As a result, neighborhood governments cannot be expected to provide local public services. The authority to make the zoning plans for village areas in the metropolitan municipalities was given to the municipalities. In other words, metropolitan municipalities have become the sole local government in 30 provinces in Turkey, responsible for providing public services to the entire province (Union of Municipalities of Turkey (TBB), 2018). According to Article 4(d) of Law No. 4706 on “Evaluation of Immovable Goods to Treasury and Amended the Added Value Tax,” issued in 2001, Treasury immovable property within an area of up to five thousand square meters of the settlement area of villages and outside the boundaries of municipalities and its adjacent areas, can be sold directly to property users at the current market value. However, since the villages in the boundaries of metropolitan municipalities have been abolished by Law No. 6360, the villagers who use the treasury land will not be able to exercise the purchasing rights mentioned in Law No. 4706. According to Article 2 of Village Law No. 442, people that share common spaces, such as mosques, schools, pastures, and coppice forest, form a village. With Law No. 6360, it has become a matter of debate how the common spaces of villages, such as pasture, plateau, and coppice forest are used. In other words, the issue of authority and responsibility regarding the use of these areas has become a problematic issue. Problems That Arise From The Participation Of Forest Villages In Metropolitan Municipalities Forest villages have been left out of the changes to some extent. It is envisaged that the forest villages within the limits of new metropolitan municipalities would protect their legal personality after the border expansion. However, with Law No. 6360, all the villages within the borders of the metropolitan municipalities have been transformed into neighborhoods without distinction. To continue the rights, responsibilities, and privileges granted previously to forest villagers under the law, an amendment has been made to Municipal Law No. 5393 (Article 12) in accordance with Article 16 of Law No. 6360. After the amendment, residents of these neighborhoods and other beneficiaries will be able to benefit from pasture, summer pasture, and winter quarters within the scope of the provisions of Law on Pastures No. 4342 (Çınar et al., 2013, p. 106). Law No. 6360 protects the rights of people who live according to the forest legislation in the villages that were converted into neighborhoods, but it does not provide these protections to towns turned into neighborhoods (TBB, 2014, p. 4). Although Article 16 of Law No. 6360 states that forest villagers will continue to have their rights under the scope of the Pasture Law, the villagers have no authority over this immovable property since it is no longer the property of that village under Law No. 6360 (Mutlu, 2013, p. 11; İrdem, 2016, p. 164). Given the wide range of authority given to municipalities in terms of urban transformation, construction will increase gradually in the forested areas, pastures, summer pastures, and winter quarters within the village boundaries. In short, there is no legal validity, sanction, or credibility to ensure that the previous legal personality of the village and forest villages will be respected. Article 10 of the European Charter of Local Self-Government states that local authorities shall be entitled to cooperate with other local authorities both within and outside of the state. To protect and to promote their common interests, local governments shall be allowed to participate in the international association of local authorities. According to Article 127 of the 1982 Constitution, local government associations can be established with the permission of the Council of Ministers. It is stated that local administrations can cooperate with each other with the aim of providing certain public services. Unions of Village Service Delivery (Köylere Hizmet Götürme Birliği) are also associations established for this purpose. These unions, which concentrate especially on meeting the needs of the villagers, have spread all over the country (Geray, 1999b, p. 33-35). Villages are able to be established Unions of Village Service Delivery to assist in the development of road, water, sewerage, and similar infrastructure facilities, except for the marketing of agricultural products (Article 18 of Law No. 5355). These unions were established by Law No. 5355 to help villages that are not able to effectively meet their own needs. These unions, which have been activated by KÖYDES projects in recent years, help to improve the infrastructure of villages, such as building village roads, repairing and maintaining of drinking water facilities, and maintaining and building new warehouses. Thanks to the KÖYDES project implemented by Unions of Village Service Delivery since 2005, positive developments were recorded in eliminating the infrastructure deficiencies of the villages, raising the living standard of the people living in the villages, socio-economic development of underdeveloped regions, and preventing migration to cities (Öğüt et al., 2008, p. 105). It is also possible to transfer appropriations from the ministry and other public institutions to these unions. The ministry and other central government agencies may allocate funds for services such as construction, maintenance, divided roads, electrification, village roads, drinking water, irrigation water, and sewage (Şengül, 2013, p. 75). However, with Law No. 6360, the legal personality of the local administrative unions, including Unions of Village Service Delivery have also been abolished. All kinds of movable and immovable goods, assets, and debts of the villages whose legal entities have been abolished with the Law No. 6360 have been transferred to the ministries, the metropolitan municipalities, or district municipalities. In other words, the immovable property that belonged to the villages and Unions of Village Service Delivery are no longer the common property of the villages. 3. How The Forest Villages of Kastamonu Province Could be Affected by Law No. 6360? In the Regulation on Performance Programs to be Prepared in Public Administrations, published in the Official Gazette dated 05.07.2008 and numbered 26927, a detailed version of the Ministry of Interior’s 2017 Performance Program, prepared under the provisions of “The Public Administrations Eray Aktepe, Yavuz Guloglu, Nur Belkayali Performance Programs are Open to the Public and Published on Internet Sites in January,” shows that Kastamonu may also become a metropolitan municipality in the coming period. The performance target table on pages 56 and 57 of the relevant program refers to the draft bill on the applicability of the metropolitan model to 51 provinces. According to the Ministry of Interior’s 2017 Performance Program, commissions will be set up to conduct a modeling study for the draft law on the effective application of the metropolitan model to 51 provinces under the framework of the Local Government Reform Implementation Support Project (LAR III) (T.C. İçişleri Bakanlığı 2017 Yılı Performans Programı, 2017, p. 56-57). Table 1. Population of Kastamonu, 2016 Total Turkey Total Population 79.814.871 Kastamonu Province Population 376.945 Kastamonu City/District Centers Population 145.754 *Kastamonu Annual Activity Report 2016 According to the 2016 results of the Address-based Population Registration System announced by Turkstat, Kastamonu ranked 50th with 376.945 inhabitants. With such a large population, Kastamonu is targeted to be included in a metropolitan municipality administration. Table 2. Number of Forest Villages and their Populations in Some Cities in Turkey, 2016 Province Number of Forest Villages Population of Forest Villages Kastamonu 1035 131 987 Samsun 822 303 001 Balıkesir 820 334 680 Manisa 648 208 386 Bursa 591 232 272 Çorum 587 112 031 Tokat 574 125 695 Çanakkale 561 142 955 Sivas 561 67 694 İzmir 540 233 083 Ktahya 493 114 230 * General Directorate of Forestry and Turkish Statistical Institute. According to 2016 Forest Statistics provided by Turkstat, Kastamonu is in the first place with the greatest number of forest villages (1035) in Turkey. Considering that the population of Kastamonu is 376.945, about 35% of the total population of the province lives in forest villages. The population of villages and forest villages may not make up a significant portion of the total population of the metropolises where the population is concentrated in the city center. However, any change in the provincial, district, and village administrations will be felt at a significant level in all the provincial administrations where the population of the districts and villages is high as compared to the total population, like in Kastamonu. Problems That Arise From The Participation Of Forest Villages In Metropolitan Municipalities Table 3. Number of Villages and Forest Villages in Kastamonu Province, 2016 Number of Forest Villages Number of Villages Kastamonu 1.035 1.070 Tkiye 21.380 34.434 * General Directorate of Forestry, Forestry Statistics, and Turkish Statistical Institute About 60% of Kastamonu’s land is covered in forest. There are 1070 villages in Kastamonu and 1035 with Forest Village status. In other words, 95% of the villages in Kastamonu are forest villages (Turkish Statistical Institute, 2016). As can be seen, forestry activities affect every aspect of Kastamonu people’s lives. Due to the number of forest villages, the density of the population living in forest villages, and the supply of livelihoods from forest resources, any change in the province of Kastamonu would be felt at a significant level. In accordance with the provisional Article 2 of the Law No. 5216, the legal entity of the villages was abolished and turned into a neighborhood. In the historical process, the population rates of villages, towns, districts, and city centers have changed greatly, reflecting migration from rural to urban areas in Turkey. As Ulusoy and Tekdere (2017) have highlighted, while approximately 76% of the total population lived in rural areas during in the early years of the Republic of Turkey, the ratio has fallen dramatically to around 8% today. With Law No. 6360, which was enacted as the “New Metropolitan Act” in 2012, the number of metropolitan cities has reached a total of 30. With this law, 84% of the population who lived within the boundaries of municipalities’ adjacent areas across Turkey began to live in residential areas in the Metropolitan Municipality (Ulusoy and Tekdere, 2017, p. 444). The tendency of this metropolitanization to spread to settlements that have high rural populations and high rural activities will negatively affect the villages, towns, Special Provincial Administrations, and those living in these settlements. 4. Conclusion and Discussion The end of the legal personality of villages does not coincide with the EU’s “Subsidiarity” principle which is defined in Article 5 of the Treaty on European Union. The Subsidiarity principle states that local-related decisions need to be taken by the authority that is as close as possible to the localities; however, this practice removes the nearest governmental units and replaces them with metropolises. The ending of the legal personality of about 10,000 forest villages and their transformation into neighborhoods of district municipalities do not coincide with Article 170 of the Constitution, titled “Protection of the forest peasantry” (Çağlar, 2014, p. 177). With Law No. 6360, the duties, powers, and responsibilities of villages have passed to the metropolitan municipalities. In this context, it is likely that public service expenditures will be increased in village areas. On the other hand, the villagers who are away from the metropolitan municipalities and its institutions will not receive efficient public services as compared with residents of the city center. The sanitation tax was not collected and the water fees over 25% of the lowest rates were taken from city dwellers after the law was enacted in 2012; however, five years after the law, the sanitation tax and the water fees would be collected, as collecting in the city centers of metropolitan municipalities in 2018. On the other hand, the villages in Kastamonu, which will be under the responsibility of the metropolitan municipality, face the risk of opening to planning and development activities. There are concerns about the possibility of the loss of forests and the loss of the rights of the villagers over communal space if they are included in the municipal service boundaries (YAYED, 2012). The same concerns apply to Kastamonu. Village administrations were local administration units with their own rights, privileges, and possibilities to use forests and resources due to their legal personality, but now they are deprived of legal, financial, and managerial rights and have become an add-on administrative unit of the metropolitan municipality with the passage of Law No. 6360. (Görgün and Yörür, 2017, p. 16). According to the Turkish authorities, although the villages, including the forest villages, were abolished Eray Aktepe, Yavuz Guloglu, Nur Belkayali as legal institutions in metropolises with Law No. 6360, the rights and privileges of these villages will continue. However, this claim is not an in-situ assessment because the rights and privileges depend on the legal personality. References Act No. 6525 amending some Acts and Decrees having force of Law Article 2 of Village Law No. 442, Retrieved February 17, 2018 from http://www.mevzuat.gov.tr/MevzuatMetin/1.3.442. Article 18 of Law No. 5355, Retrieved February 17, 2018 from http://www.tbb.gov.tr/belediyelerimiz/mahalli-idare-birlikleri/koylere-hizmet-goturme-birlikleri Çağlar, Y. (2014), Hukuksal Kıskaçtaki Ormanlar Ve Ormancılık (Seçme Tartışmalar), Trkiye Barolar Birliği Yayınları: 209 Çınar T., Duru, B., Çiner, C. U. and Zengin O., (2013) Belediyenin Sınırları, TODAİE, Ankara European Charter of Local Self-Government, Retrieved February 17, 2018 from https://rm.coe.int/168007a088 Geray, C. (1999a) “İşlendirme Açısından Kırsal Gelişme Yöneltilerimiz”, AÜ Siyasal Bilgiler Fakültesi Dergisi, 54/2, ss.61-99. Göküş, M. ve Alptürker, H. (2016). “6360 Sayılı Yasa İle Köy Yönetiminden Mahalle Yönetimine Geçiş Sonrası Etkin Hizmet Sunumuna İlişkin Muhtarların Görüşü: Silifke Köyleri Örneği” Selçuk Üniversitesi Sosyal ve Teknik Araştırmalar Dergisi Sayı: 11, 2016, ss. 67-86. Görgün, E. K. ve Yörür, N. (2017) “6360 Sayılı Büyükşehir Kanunu Sonrası Kırsal Alanları Yeniden Düşünmek-İzmir Örneği” Aydın İktisat Fakültesi Dergisi, 2 (1), 11-27. Gzler, K. (2007), İdare Hukuku Dersleri, Ekin Kitabevi, Bursa İçişleri Bakanlığı 2017 Yılı Performans Programı, Retrieved February 16, 2018 from https://www.icisleri.gov.tr/kurumlar/icisleri.gov.tr/performans_prog/2017_perf_prog_yeni.pdf İrdem, İ. ve Mutlu, A, “6360 Sayılı Yasanın ‘Kır-Kent” Kavramlarını Muğlaklaştırması Sorunu ve Olası Sonuçları”, KAYSEM 10, 5-7 Mayıs 2016 İzmir, 159-176 Mutlu, A. (2013). “6360 Sayılı Büyükşehir Belediye Yasası Yasada Kıra, Kırda Yasaya Bakış”, Düşünce Dünyasında Türkiz Siyaset ve Kültür Dergisi, Yıl:4, Sayı: 21, 2013 Öğdül, H. “Kırsal Mekân Politikalarında Yeni Dönem” Mimarlık Dergisi, 371 Mayıs-Haziran 2013. Retrieved February 15, 2018 from http://www.mimarlikdergisi.com/index.cfm?sayfa=mimarlik&DergiSayi=385&RecID=3153 Öğüt, A., Türker, N. and Öztoprak, A. A. (2008) “Kaymakamların İş Tatminine Köydes Projesinin Öngörülen Etkileri: Betimleyici Bir Çalışma”, Türk İdare Dergisi, 460, s.105-120. Şengül, R. (2013) “Köylere Hizmet Götürme Birliklerinin İşlevselliği Üzerine Bir Alan Araştırması: Bartın Örneği”, Afyon Kocatepe Üniversitesi İİBF Dergisi (C. XV, S. II, 2013) Ulusoy A. , Tekdere M., "Mali Yerelleşme ve Metropolleşme İkilemi", Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi (The Journal of Social Science), pp.436-464, 2017 Union of Municipalities of Turkey (2014). “6360 Sayılı On Dört İlde Büyükşehir Belediyesi ve Yirmi Yedi İlçe Kurulması İle Bazı Kanun Ve Kanun Hükmünde Kararnamelerde Değişiklik Yapılmasına Dair Kanuna İlişkin Rehber”. Retrieved from http://www.tbb.gov.tr/storage/userfiles/rehber_ve_bilgi_notlari/6360_torba_personel_rehber.pdf Union of Municipalities of Turkey, “Municipalities in Turkey” Retrieved February 15, 2018 from http://www.tbb.gov.tr/en/local-authorities/municipalities-in-turkey/ YAYED, 2012, “Büyükşehir Tasarısı Hakkında Yayed Görüşü”, Retrieved February 15, 2018 from http://www.yayed.org/id261-yayed-gorusu/buyuksehir-tasarisi-hakkinda-yayedgorusu-11ekim-2012.php The Effects of Perceived Discrimination and Status on Self-Esteem: The Mediating Role of Identity Management Strategies Kenan Alparslan, Nuri Akdogan 1. Introduction The vast majority of psychology theories agree on the idea that people have a strong and prevalent need for self-esteem. The need for self-esteem have been discussed to explain various ways of behavior in various conceptual analyses and empirical studies since the book Principles of Psychology (1890) by William James up to publications of today. Considering that self-esteem is an essential need, the levels of self-esteem in disadvantaged or ethnic minority groups have become a subject of debate. Most minority groups who are socio-economically and educationally disadvantaged are usually subjected to prejudices, stereotypes and discrimination. It is thought that these conditions will affect the self-esteem of members of minorities (Verkuyten, 1998). Additionally, the effects of prejudice and discrimination on self-esteem remain to be a subject of debate. Tajfel and Turner (1979) stated that the self-esteem levels of members of disadvantaged groups will decrease due to their position, but they will develop various reactions to protect or increase their self-esteem. Individuals adopt some strategies that manage identity to both gain a positive social identity and protect their self-esteem. This study proposes a model that shows how minority or disadvantaged group members protect or increase their self-esteem by utilizing the concept of identity management strategies (Blanz, Mummendey, Mielke, and Klink, 1998). 2. Self-Esteem Self-esteem is described as the extent to with the individual likes, accepts and respects themselves. Self-esteem is a central element of psychological functionality. Accordingly, strong relationships may be found between self-esteem and various other variables including the general satisfaction from one’s life (Crocker and Major, 1989). The idea that personal identity and social identity are parts of the concept of self that define it on different levels (Tajfel and Turner, 1979) has accordingly inspired the idea that self-esteem should be categorized within itself (Luhtanen and Crocker, 1992). According to this, individual and collective selfesteem categories were adopted by applying the division between the personal and the social on selfvalue feelings. Based on this, the concept of self-esteem refers to how the person feels about themselves in general and assesses certain components such as ethnic identity (Crocker and Luhtanen, 1990). Relationships between individual and collective self-esteem have been investigated in different cultures. A medium-level positive relationship was observed between these two types of self-esteem in youths belonging to the Turkish ethnic group in the Netherlands (Verkuyten, 1998). Additionally, while there was a positive relationship between individual and collective self-esteem in Chinese-born teenagers who lived in Canada, no significant relationship was born in Canadian-born Chinese teenagers (Lay and Verkuyten, 1999). The degree of the relationship between the personal and ethnic self-esteem levels of an individual is dependent on their sense of belonging to the ethnic group (Phinney, 1991). For those who define themselves with their ethnic group, the distinction between the person and the ethnic group diminishes. This gives rise to the possibility that the relationship between personal and ethnic self-esteem will be significant. On the other hand, there is a clearer distinction between the group and the person among those who do not define themselves with their ethnic group, and this predicts that personal and ethnic self-esteem will be more independent. There are several factors that affect self-esteem negatively. However, considering the disadvantaged ethnic groups, perceived discrimination and social status become prominent. Kenan Alparslan, Nuri Akdogan 3. Perceived Discrimination and Social Status While ethnic minority groups have low social statutes, they tend to be the victims of prejudice and discrimination. Presence of prejudice and discrimination is one of the main factors that affect the selfesteem of members of ethnic minority groups (Verkuyten and Nekuee, 2001). Studies revealed that the ethnic and racial discrimination experienced by group members who had lower self-value is harmful for their psychological functioning (Bobowik, Basabe and Páez, 2014). In addition to presence of discrimination, how ethnic group members experience and interpret their situation is also effective on self-esteem. Perceived discrimination is generally defined as the belief or perception of a person that they are treated unfairly or negatively based on their skin color, physical traits, ethnic or cultural attachments. Sanchez and Brock (1996) explained perceived ethnic discrimination as “the individual perception that arises when a person is treated differently and selectively due to their ethnic associations.” Studies showed that minority groups consistently perceived group discrimination rather than individual discrimination (Taylor, Wright, Moghaddam and Lalonde, 1990). In a study with Turkish and Moroccan teenagers living in the Netherlands, it was found that the participants perceived more group discrimination than individual discrimination, and participants who perceived high levels of discrimination reported low self-esteem levels (Verkuyten, 1998). Even though members of disadvantaged ethnic groups are not personally exposed to discrimination, they may think that their ethnic group is discriminated against, and this situation affects their self-esteem negatively. In other words, be it on a personal or group level, perceived discrimination is harmful for psychological functionality. Another factor that affects self-esteem negatively is the level of social status perceived in the existing social system. In a study conducted with youths, it was found that Latin Americans living in Spain showed higher levels of well-being than Africans and Romanians due to the positive social status they attributed to themselves (Bobowik et al., 2014). Moreover, blacks, women, and persons with physical disability or mental disorders were found to have lower self-esteem as they were relatively disadvantaged in the American society in terms of both economic opportunities and outcomes, as well as interpersonal outcomes (Crocker and Major, 1989). In a study with Chinese teenagers living in the Netherlands, those who perceived their social status to be high also had high levels of ethnic selfesteem (Verkuyten and Lay, 1998). According to these findings, individuals who perceive the social status of their ethnic groups positively will also have high self-esteem levels. On the other hand, individuals who perceive the social status of their ethnic groups negatively will also have low selfesteem levels. 4. Identity Management Strategies Identity management strategies refer to a set of reactions shown by group members that have low selfesteem due to their disadvantaged positions in order to increase their self-esteem. Accordingly, people assume group perceptions strategically to place either themselves (a case of ‘individual strategy’) or their group (a case of ‘group-level strategy) in a positive perspective (Ellemers and Rijswijk, 1997). Ethnic groups, rather than internalizing the ethnic discrimination directed towards them, use it as an effective tool to reach positive self-esteem levels. Individuals in a disadvantaged position reach to this ostracization by showing various reactions. This way, individuals fight the negative effects of the discrimination they experience and take initiatives to gain a positive social identity (Crocker and Major, 1989). Tajfel and Turner (1979) provided potential explanations on the subject of how members of disadvantaged groups may obtain a positive individual and group identity in the framework of social identity theory. According to this, in connection to the status relationships among the groups in a society and relevant social-structural conditions, members of disadvantaged groups try to reestablish positive self-esteem by choosing individual or collective identity management strategies. The selected strategy is usually dependent on the belief system of individuals. Tajfel and Turney (1979) made a distinction between two different belief systems as “social mobility” and “social change”. The social mobility belief system assumes that the lines between social groups are flexible and permeable, and individuals can move from a lower group to an upper group by skills and effort. People who adopt this The Effects of Perceived Discrimination and Status on Self-Esteem belief system usually try to gain a positive identity by using an individual strategy called “individual mobility”; they leave their group to enter a higher-status group. On the other hand, beliefs of social change assume that group lines are impenetrable, and it is therefore impossible to leave one’s own group. In this case, positive social identity may be developed by one of two general strategies based on the perceived legitimacy level of the intergroup status quo. In the first of these, if the status quo is perceived as legitimate, sub-groups may use “social creativity” strategies that aim to reevaluate the group (e.g., “We might not be smarter than them, but we are more beautiful and honest.”). On the other hand, if the status quo is perceived as illegitimate, sub-groups have a tendency to choose a “social competition” strategy. When social competition strategies are used, direct conflicts among the groups (social activism, collective protests, revolutions, war and terrorism) occur. In such cases, large-or small-scale social movement emerge (Hogg and Abrams, 1988). Blanz et al. (1998) determined 12 strategies based on theories of social identity, social comparison and self-categorization. These are categorized under 2 different dimensions as individual-collective and behavioral-cognitive, and 4 main titles. As individual mobility and assimilation aim to increase the individual identity of the person, they are individual strategies, whereas they are behavioral strategies as they require mobility to access a group with higher status. Social competition and realistic competition are collective strategies as they aim to increase the identity of the group collectively rather than the identity of the individual, and they are behavioral strategies as they require various acts for the in-group identity. The other eight strategies are cognitive strategies as they generally involve comparison and categorization. Generally speaking, these may also be categorized as individual, cognitive and competitive strategies. The literature review revealed findings suggesting that the acts of focusing on positive aspects of identity and prioritizing the identity’s strong sides by low-status groups and the sense of control related to the strategies in question act as a buffer in protecting self-esteem against discrimination and the negative influence of status (e.g., Harris-Britt et al., 2007; Moradi and Hasan, 2004). Bobowik et al. (2014) conducted a study with immigrants from different ethnic groups living in Spain and showed that identity management strategies were related to both psychological and social well-being. Moreover, Crocker and Major (1989) emphasized the potential intermediary role of strategies by reporting that members of stigmatized groups were able to preserve their concept of self and increase their selfesteem by adopting various strategies. 5. General Discussion According to approaches that discuss the self in terms of group membership, the self-value of the individual is under the influence of the identity value of the group they belong to (Larry and Verkuyten, 1999). This is because, according to these approaches, both we and other people around us perceive, define and assess us based on our group memberships. Therefore, living under the influence of a negative group identity for a long time has a harmful effect on the self. Considering that they are exposed to discrimination, it was reported that members of disadvantaged or minority groups had lower self-esteem (Verkuyten, 1998). Especially the initial views in the literature were that ethnic minorities have low self-esteem. For example, Erikson (1956) stated that there is evidence of feelings of ‘inferiority’ in all minority groups, and that feelings of self-hate and worthlessness were caused by being members of ostracized groups. In recent years, in contrast to these views, the experiences related to negative processes imposed on ethnic minority or disadvantaged group members have started to be interpreted and discussed in different ways. In generally, it was argued that negative processes in these groups may provide positive outcomes where necessary coping sources are accessible (Crocker and Major, 1989; Tajfel and Turner, 1979). The purpose of this study is to propose a model that is based on the intermediary role of identity management strategies in the relationship between perceived discrimination and social status, and self-esteem. Towards this purpose, it is aimed firstly to investigated differences in self-esteem as a function of discrimination and social status and then investigate the intermediary role of identity management strategies in the relationships between perceived discrimination and social status, and self-esteem. Figure 1 shows the model that was created about how disadvantaged ethnic groups protect Kenan Alparslan, Nuri Akdogan their self-esteem within the framework of identity management strategies proposed by social identity theory. As perceived discrimination and low social status affect self-esteem negatively, individuals will adopt one or more individual, cognitive or competitive strategies. As individuals who adopt individual or cognitive strategies think individually rather than in terms of group identity, their individual selfesteem will be protected, but their collective self-esteem will be affected negatively. As opposed to this, as those who prefer competitive strategies aim to increase the group identity, they will protect their collective self-esteem; however, their individual self-esteem may be affected negatively as they continue to be the member of the disadvantaged group. Figure 1. The proposed model of relationships between the variables. 6. References Blanz, M., Mummendey, A., Mielke, R., & Klink, A. (1998). Responding to negative social identity: A taxonomy of identity management strategies. European Journal of Social Psychology, 28(5), 697-729. Bobowik, M., Basabe, N., & Páez, D. (2014). Identity Management Strategies, Perceived Discrimination, and Well-Being Among Young Immigrants in Spain. In R. Dimitrova, M. Bender & F. van de Vijver (Eds.), Global Perspectives on Well-Being in Immigrant Families (pp. 213-234), Springer Science+Business Media, New York. Crocker, J., & Major, B. (1989). Social stigma and self-esteem: The self-protective properties of stigma. Psychological Review, 96(4), 608. Crocker, J., & Luhtanen, R. (1990). Collective self-esteem and ingroup bias. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58(1), 60-67. Ellemers, N., & Van Rijswijk, W. (1997). Identity needs versus social opportunities: The use of group-level and individual-level identity management strategies. Social Psychology Quarterly, 52-65. Erikson, E. (1956). The problem of ego-identity. Journel os the American Psychoanalytic Association, 4, 56-121. Harris-Britt, A., Valrie, C. R., Kurtz-Costes, B. ve Rowley, S. J. (2007). Perceived Racial Discrimination and Self-Esteem in African American Youth: Racial Socialization as a Protective Factor, Journal of research on Adolescence, 17(4), 669-682. Hogg, M. A., & Abrams, D. (1988). Social identifications. London: Routledge. James, W. (1950). The prenciples of psychology. New York: Dover. (Original work puplished 1890) The Effects of Perceived Discrimination and Status on Self-Esteem Lay, C., & Verkuyten, M. (1999). Ethnic identity and its relation to personal self-esteem: A comparison of Canadian-born and foreign-born Chinese adolescents. The Journal of Social Psychology, 139(3), 288-299. Luhtanen, R., & Crocker, J. (1992). A collective self-esteem scale: Self-evaluation of one's social identity. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 18(3), 302-318. Moradi, B., & Hasan, N. T. (2004). Arab American Persons’ Reported Experiences of Discrimination and Mental Health: The Mediating Role of Personal Control. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 51(4), 418–428. Phinney, J. S. (1991). Ethnic identity and self-esteem: A review and integration. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 13(2), 193-208. Sanchez, J. I., ve Brock, P. (1996). Outcomes of perceived discrimination among Hispanic employees: Is diversity management a luxury or a necessity? Academy of Management Journal, 39(3), 704-719. Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). An Integrative Theory of Intergroup Conflict. In W. G. Austin & S.Worchel (Eds.), The Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations (pp. 33-47), Brooks-Cole, Monterey, CA. Taylor, D. M., Wright, S. C., Moghaddam, F. M., & Lalonde, R. N. (1990). The personal/group discrimination discrepancy: Perceiving my group, but not myself, to be a target for discrimination. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 16(2), 254-262. Verkuyten M. (1998). Perceived Discrimination and Self-Esteem Among Ethnic Minority Adolescents, The Journal of Social Psychology, 138(4), 479-493. Verkuyten, M., & Lay, C. (1998). Ethnic minority identity and psychological well‐being: The mediating role of collective self‐esteem. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 28(21), 1969-1986. Verkuyten, M., & Nekuee, S. (2001). Self‐Esteem, Discrimination, and Coping Among Refugees: The Moderating Role of Self‐Categorization. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 31(5), 1058-1075 Under Disciplinary Regulations, The Distribution of disciplinary action of Accounting Profession Members and Ranking By Cities: Case of Turkey (2008-2014) Alper Tunga Alkan 1. Introduction As in every profession, supervision activities has also an important effect on accounting profession. When responsibility area of the members of accounting profession are taken into consideration, it reveals that it is necessary for them to be supervised from time to time, in order to be able to determine whether or not they perform their legal duties and authorities in a reliable way. Just as elimination of shortcomings identified will more increase the value attributed on care of society, it will also enable the problems between the members of profession to be reduced to the minimum level. As a result of the tasks the members of accounting profession realize, the reliability of information obtained from the aspect of decision makers is a subject that has been discussed. On the other hand, when the difficulty of directly achieving its resource of the decision makers of interest to examine the presented information, and social costs it will bring with it are considered, the importance of supervision activities increases much more. Especially in the last years, that some events which reduce the value of accounting profession on the cares of society such as Enron, were experienced revealed that it must be supervised, besides the transactions carried out by the members of accounting profession, the members of profession themselves. In the discussions under consideration, the general idea is in the form that, for the trust felt to the member of profession to be able to increase, and for a positive opinion to be able to form in the direction of its trueness and impartiality, in the necessary conditions, supervising the members of profession became obligatory. Supervision of the profession members increases the value of them in the minds of decision makers and it also makes a contribution to the solution of problems, experienced among the members of profession and between the members of profession and taxpayers. Especially, in terms of identifying the problems and using the learning culture toward the problems as an educational instrument, the fact that the concept supervision toward the members of profession becomes established provides the continuity of accounting profession in a certain standards, and building of future of profession in a certain standards. In this study, first of all, supervision of the members of accounting profession and disciplinary penalties to be faced by subjecting to this supervision are discussed at the theoretical framework. Secondly, the activities toward the realized in Turkey and findings obtained are evaluated together. Finally, in Turkey, on the basis of the years 2008-20141, stating the numbers of the members of accounting profession and the total of the penalties imposed and considering 10 provinces, where the most and least members of accounting profession are present, an evaluation was made for Turkey. 2. Supervision Of The Accounting Profession Members And The Sort Of Discipline Punishment In Turkey In Turkey, the members of accounting profession can be supervised by three different methods. The first of these are supervisions carried out by chambers of profession; the second, finance ministry, and third, supervisions, which can be expressed as “partial control” during certified cross-examination. In this study, only the sort of supervision carried out by chamber of profession is discussed in the direction of the study. In the study of interest, in the examinations carried out, in the scope of legislation taking as a subject the accounting profession, under the title of “supervision of the members of profession”, even Alper Tunga Alkan though any expression is not met, including in the law of profession, numbered 3568, and the regulations determined below, the expressions of “the crimes, related to the duty, disciplinary penalties and penalty provisions, which can be defined as supervision activities, take place. In the scope, the law of profession, numbered 3568, the relevant items, in which the information about “the crimes related to duty”, “disciplinary crimes” and “criminal provisions” are given place, were discussed in detail in the Disciplinary Regulation of the Law of “Independent Accounting and Certified Financial Advisory, published in Official Newspaper”, dated of 31.10.2000 and numbered 24216, According to this, disciplinary investigation about the members of profession is realized in 4 forms. These are a) the notice and complaint of the relevant person b) the demand of any of the rules of relevant chamber, c) the demand of any of association rules, and the investigations conducted about the head of members of chamber or association board, considered responsible, through the decision of the relevant chamber or association board. As they take place in the regulations, the states where the member of profession will be deemed guilty and the penalties they will receive as a result of supervision are collected in the 4 main title as the penalties of notice, reprimand, retention from professional activity temporally, and dismissing from profession For these sanctions to be able to be under consideration, the states and behaviors deemed crime are summarily arranged as in the following Table 1: Table 1. The States Deemed Crime for The Members of Accounting Profession and The Penalties They Will Receive in Turkey Punishment Status Deemed Crime Notice Remaining indifference and uninterested to the works of customers; behaving against the subjects of contract, which will be made on the professional subjects with the customers; behaving against the provisions of circulars and directives, published by association; that member of profession does works, which does not match with the solemnity and honor of the profession; not submitting the information to the chamber completely and truly; becoming a part of interest conflicts; not submitting the information and documents required by chamber. Reprimand Renewing any actions requiring the penalty of notice in a tree years’ period; the use of title that are not possessed; accepting the work without considering the written service contract; arranging the false and misleading document; not complying with the advertisement prohibition; collecting the wage different from the fee tariff; making work suggestions and implementations about the taxpayers of the other members of profession; providing advantage in competition; making unreal notice and complaint about the other member of profession; Retention from professional activity temporally Repeating any state and action requiring the penalty of reprimand; working the hidden service contract; making cooperation against the laws and regulations; not complying with the prohibition of commercial activity; deliberately using the authority to sign and supervise declaration against the true, Dismissing from profession Two times in five years after being punished with retention from the activity, committing again the action requiring this punishment; receiving heavy imprisonment due to the crimes related to the profession; causing the tax punishment deliberately; hiring the license of profession to another person; making transaction using the name of the other members of profession. Under Disciplinary Regulations 3. Literature: The Studies About Supervision On The Accounting Profession In Turkey Although there are many studies about the accounting profession, the number of those studying on supervision of member of profession is considerably limited in both international and national literature. In this study, besides a few numbers of study related to the subject of study, although basically another dimension of the accounting profession is taken as a subject, the relevant sections of the studies mentioning about supervision of the members of accounting profession are given place. A study including a common subject with this study was carried out by Banar and Aslan (2009). In that study including the period of 2000-2008 about disciplinary penalties received by the members of accounting profession, due to the fact the disciplinary penalties imposed are not announced to the public in accordance with the law of profession, being based on the activity reports, the penalties of profession members received according to the regions in Turkey are numerically examined. Uzay and Tanç (2004) carried out attracting attention the presence of unfair competition between the members of profession, in their study and reveal the results in the way that the taxpayers evaluate the members of the accounting professions In the study, carried out by Arıkan (2004), the problems related to the accounting profession were discussed in the various titles. The conclusion of the study is an unfair competition was experienced between the members of accounting profession. In addition, in the studies, using the expression that “in the follow of the constraints made about unlicenced personnel, the chamber must be able to be utilized as intervener”, in the follow of those performing the accounting profession as undeclared, it is emphasized that professional chambers remained ineffective. Arıkan (2000) who also serves head of chamber of independent accountants and financial advisors, points out unfair competition as one of the most serious problems the members of the accounting face with. He writes about the elements engendering the unfair competition and puts then in order as undeclared offices, license hiring, unfair competition created by the dependent employees, unfair competition via announcement, advertisement, and signboard, unfair competition created by customers, and unfair competition crested by the members of profession, lowering price and conceding about quality. According to the results of study carried out by Kalaycı and Tekşen (2006), the great majority of the members of profession suggest that their colleagues keep books cheaply and, thus, thinks that the accounting profession loses value on the cares of society. On the other hand, the members of the accounting profession requires from the chambers, to which they subject, them to find solution the unfair competition between their colleagues is an emphasis on the increasing importance of the concept supervision. In the study, where “Survey of Members of Accounting Profession” is evaluated by Apak (2006), using the expression that “the subjects such as “unfair competition, service quality, and wage problem, and etc. must be taken under follow and control and the necessary solution ways must be founded”, it is emphasized that it is necessary to supervise the members of profession. In an other study that was carried out by Bilen (2008), the important results attracts attention, determined in the way that there is an intensive competition among the members of accounting profession; that the fees the profession members receive are not standard; that the mistakes the profession members make in view of their ambitions and ignorance are charged on the profession; that the members of profession exhibit unethical behaviors; and that the lack of supervision impedes that the profession is applied more seriously. According to the study which was carried out by Özulucan et al. (2010), the distrust of taxpayers toward the members of accounting profession leads them not to care accounting all over Turkey, in turn, the members of profession. This situation stalemates the solution of problems experienced between taxpayers and members of profession. When all of these studies are evaluated, it is seen that in the literature, the main existing problems related to the subject of supervision are collected under three titles as unfair competition, fee, and problems related to ethics and chamber of profession. Alper Tunga Alkan 4. Methodology In scientific studies, the theoretical and field studies are commonly given place. In this study under consideration, using literature review as well as statistical data, an applied method was preferred. The data used in the empirical part of the study were obtained from the activity reports, published in the official website of TURMOB. The activity reports of interest includes the years of 2009 and 2014. But, since the imposed disciplinary penalties taking place in the official website are collectively presented in the activity reports of the year 2010, combining the data of 2008, 2009, and 2010, the information was tabulated in the way of 2010 and 2014. While the findings are evaluated, as statistical method, frequency distribution was used. The reason for this is that the detailed information is not given about penalties and that only numerical values according to the sorts of penalties. In summary, using the number of members of profession and data on the sorts of amount of punishment imposed, analysis was carried out. 5. Results And Discussion2 In Turkey, total 2075 penalty were imposed on the members of accounting profession between the years of 2008 -2014. 289 of these penalties are called as the other penalties (decision of no-prosecution, not imposing penalty, etc.). This situation was not included in the evaluation for this study. The number of total penalties included in the Table 2, is 1786. In Turkey, there were 78,569 members of accounting profession in 2011; 80,414 in 2011; 85,417 in 2012; 88,147 in 2013, and 91,457 in 2014. Also, 782 discipline penalty was imposed between the years 2008-2010; 470, in 2011; 173, in 2012; 133 in 2013; and 228 in 2014. Thus, the total number of files that becomes definite between the years of 2008-2014 was determined as 1786. The distribution of these penalties according to their sorts is like in Table 2: Table 2. Distribution of Penalties According to The Sorts and Years Sort of Penalty 2008 -2010 1 201 2 201 3 201 4 201 m Topla % Notice 257 188 33 27 39 544 6 30,4 Repriman d 292 156 51 46 69 614 8 34,3 Retentio n from professional activity temporally 150 91 56 44 76 417 5 23,3 Dismissi ng from the profession 83 35 33 16 44 211 1 11,8 Total 782 470 173 133 228 1786 100 When the values presented in the activity reports are examined, in Turkey, in the categories of penalties imposed on the members of accounting profession, there is reprimand (614) in the first order; notice (544), in the second order; retention from professional activity (417), in the third order; and dismissing from profession (211) , in the last order. In this context, the most imposed sort of penalty by chamber of profession on the members of accounting profession is reprimand with the share of 34.88%. 2 First it should be noted that; the main reason of the differences in number of professionals between cities is the differences in the number of taxpayers. In this study, only the number of profesisonals and penalties were considered. Under Disciplinary Regulations The other remarkable point is that the penalties are mostly between the years of 2008-2010. However, since the values of interest include a process of three years, a healthy analysis cannot be carried out. When this situation is ignored, it is seen that the penalty is imposed the most in 2011 and that this is followed by the years of 2014, 2012, and 2013. In addition, the penalties of notice, reprimand, retention from activity is imposed the most in 2011; that dismissing from the profession was imposed the most in 2014; and that the year all penalties were imposed the least was 2013. In Turkey, the number of members of the accounting profession according to the provinces and total of the imposed discipline penalties coming from SMMM chambers in respect with the sort of penalty, which is expressed as file, made decision on it, is stated in Table 3: Table 3. In Turkey, The Number of Members of The Accounting Profession According to The Provinces in The Years of 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013 and 2014 and Total of The Imposed Discipline Penalty Provi nces Number of Members of Accounting Profession The imposed disciplinary penalty Total of penalties 2 010 2 011 2 012 2 013 2 014 20 082010 2 011 2 012 2 013 2 014 Adan a 1 846 1 821 1 943 1 988 2 037 16 1 5 1 2 9 8 60 Adıya man 1 44 1 45 1 54 1 61 1 74 3 1 1 0 1 6 Afyo nkarahisar 4 15 4 24 4 50 4 65 4 72 8 0 0 0 1 9 Aksar ay 1 52 1 48 1 56 1 54 1 53 1 2 0 0 0 3 Alany a 4 29 4 51 4 79 4 94 5 10 0 0 3 1 1 5 Amas ya 1 96 1 72 1 84 1 90 1 90 2 1 0 1 1 5 Anka ra 1 0008 1 0180 1 0703 1 1056 1 1480 27 1 7 7 1 4 6 4 129 Antal ya 2 475 2 508 2 684 2 780 2 632 29 1 1 5 4 4 53 Artvi n 8 3 7 7 8 3 8 7 8 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Aydı n 7 66 7 43 7 91 7 81 8 01 13 1 3 6 1 3 36 1 Balık esir 9 27 8 87 9 13 9 23 9 49 6 3 5 3 0 17 2 Bartı n 1 02 7 8 1 08 1 06 1 06 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 Batm an 1 30 1 31 1 34 1 39 1 45 0 0 0 0 1 1 4 Bileci k 1 22 1 16 1 25 1 26 1 30 1 0 0 0 0 1 5 Bitlis 4 8 5 1 5 2 5 6 5 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 Bodr um 2 57 2 66 2 78 2 82 2 90 0 1 2 1 2 6 Alper Tunga Alkan 7 Bolu 3 03 2 99 3 08 3 06 3 07 3 4 0 2 2 11 8 Burd ur 2 16 2 07 2 17 2 16 2 22 1 3 0 0 2 6 9 Bursa 3 643 3 761 3 975 4 091 4 252 23 6 5 8 5 2 2 114 0 Çana kkale 3 88 3 84 3 96 3 99 4 03 5 0 0 0 3 8 1 Çankı rı 1 04 1 03 1 04 1 01 1 01 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 Çorlu - 2 65 2 86 2 90 2 92 0 3 0 0 0 3 3 Çoru m 3 95 3 37 3 94 3 93 3 97 2 2 1 2 1 8 4 Deniz li 1 001 9 99 1 082 1 090 1 110 4 5 2 0 2 13 5 Diyar bakır 3 39 3 55 3 76 3 82 4 21 10 0 0 0 0 10 6 Dzc e 2 05 1 75 2 13 2 22 2 22 4 9 1 0 1 15 7 Edirn e 3 73 2 82 3 75 3 80 3 80 11 7 1 0 4 23 8 Elazı ğ 2 14 1 98 2 09 2 05 2 06 3 1 0 0 0 4 9 Erzin can 1 29 1 27 1 34 1 32 1 35 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Erzur um 2 87 2 74 2 81 2 82 2 82 0 2 1 0 0 3 1 Eskiş ehir 7 69 7 53 7 87 7 93 8 05 16 7 1 2 0 26 2 Fethi ye - - 2 53 2 56 2 51 0 0 3 0 0 3 3 Gazia ntep 1 389 1 436 1 501 1 571 1 631 19 3 1 6 5 6 49 4 Gires un 2 00 1 92 2 04 2 05 2 06 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 Gm üşhane 6 4 6 2 6 2 6 1 6 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 6 Hatay 8 85 5 70 5 99 5 97 6 07 38 7 2 2 1 50 7 Ispart a 3 24 3 13 3 28 3 27 3 32 1 0 0 0 0 1 8 İsken derun - 3 03 3 20 3 30 3 32 0 2 0 1 3 6 9 İstan bul 2 7929 2 9647 3 1764 3 3238 3 4923 4 21 32 1 6 3 5 2 5 4 452 0 İzmir 5 595 5 743 6 068 6 270 6 453 81 3 4 5 2 5 1 9 1 183 1 Kahr amanmara ş 4 41 4 50 4 49 4 69 4 98 0 0 1 0 0 1 Under Disciplinary Regulations 2 Karab 81 1 74 1 87 1 89 1 90 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 Kara man 88 1 89 1 94 1 97 1 02 2 2 0 0 0 0 2 4 Kars 16 1 14 1 20 1 21 1 23 1 4 0 1 0 0 5 5 Kasta monu 07 2 91 1 94 1 94 1 98 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 6 Kayse ri 46 9 015 1 082 1 129 1 187 1 15 4 1 6 1 27 7 Kırık kale 80 1 59 1 75 1 74 1 71 1 7 0 3 0 0 10 8 Kırkl areli 88 2 68 2 78 2 75 2 78 2 18 1 0 0 0 19 9 Kırşe hir 15 1 10 1 20 1 18 1 19 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 Koca eli 130 1 189 1 290 1 358 1 422 1 8 6 5 6 2 27 1 Kony a 848 1 868 1 949 1 974 1 045 2 13 8 4 0 7 32 2 Kta hya 02 3 92 2 10 3 13 3 18 3 5 7 2 0 0 14 3 Malat ya 87 3 91 3 01 4 16 4 24 4 12 2 4 1 1 20 4 Mana vgat - - - - 75 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 Mani sa 90 7 79 7 02 8 20 8 42 8 16 3 1 5 0 1 9 53 6 Mardi n 96 1 86 1 98 1 10 2 17 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 7 Mersi n 529 1 506 1 563 1 583 1 616 1 56 5 3 7 4 0 102 8 Muğl a 17 8 47 8 35 6 50 6 67 6 6 1 2 1 1 11 9 Muş 8 2 1 3 1 3 3 3 6 3 0 1 1 0 0 2 0 Nevş ehir 42 2 40 2 43 2 36 2 34 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Niğde 24 1 23 1 24 1 25 1 22 1 0 2 0 2 0 4 2 Ordu 38 3 29 3 44 3 36 3 39 3 1 2 2 1 0 6 3 Osma niye 20 1 17 1 34 1 37 1 46 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 Rize 10 2 97 1 08 2 06 2 06 2 3 3 0 0 0 6 5 Sakar ya 39 7 07 7 68 7 86 7 08 8 13 3 1 2 2 21 6 Sams un 01 8 90 7 04 8 97 7 03 8 7 1 0 1 1 10 Alper Tunga Alkan 7 Sinop 8 8 8 5 8 7 8 5 8 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 Sivas 3 05 3 10 3 26 3 27 3 31 2 1 2 2 1 8 9 Şanlı urfa 3 10 3 24 3 40 3 58 3 79 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 Tekir dağ 6 43 3 93 4 15 4 39 4 52 26 2 0 1 0 29 1 Tokat 2 09 2 09 2 19 2 16 2 20 2 0 1 0 0 3 2 Trabz on 5 34 5 10 5 38 5 40 5 49 1 5 1 1 2 5 24 3 Uşak 2 47 3 06 3 19 3 25 3 30 1 0 0 0 0 1 4 Van 2 12 2 40 2 67 2 70 2 74 10 0 0 0 0 10 5 Yalov a 2 07 2 04 2 23 2 24 2 26 9 2 1 0 1 13 6 Yozg at 2 05 2 02 2 05 2 07 2 03 1 0 0 0 0 1 7 Zong uldak 3 95 3 86 4 02 3 85 3 79 0 0 1 0 0 1 Total 7 8569 8 0414 8 5417 8 8147 9 1457 2 78 70 4 73 1 33 1 28 2 1786 Resource: Table has been prepared by compiling data derived from http://www.turmob.org.tr/TurmobWeb/FaliyetRaporu.aspx Note: Although there are 81 provinces in Turkey, all over country, 81 Chambers of Independent Accountant and Financial Advisors. 4 of these chambers are in the districts. These are the districts Alanya, Fethiye, Manavgat and Bodrum. As seen in Table 3, in 2014, while the most members of profession are in the Istanbul with 34923 the least members of profession are in the province Muş with 36 people. When the table is generally evaluated, while the most penalty was imposed in the provinces İstanbul, Ankara and İzmir, in the 11 provinces (Artvin, Bartın, Bitlis, Çankırı, Erzincan, Giresun, Karabük, Manavgat, Nevşehir, Osmaniye and Sinop), it is seen that no penalty was not imposed. After this stage, two different ways will be followed in the analysis. Firstly, being based on the number of profession, penalties will be examined; secondly, the imposed penalties will be proportioned to the number of member of profession. Under Disciplinary Regulations Table 4. Ten Provinces Where The Number of Members of Profession Are The Most and Detail of Penalties Imposed Provi nce Sor ts of Penalty Number of the imposed discipline penalties 2 0082010 % 2 011 % 2 012 % 013 2 % 2 014 % İstanbul No tice 4 7 21 ,96 3 6 27 ,27 8 22 ,22 6 24 ,00 1 1 24 ,44 Re prim. 9 2 42 ,99 6 6 50 ,00 1 3 36 ,11 7 28 ,00 1 2 26 ,67 Ret ent. Temp. 4 3 20 ,09 2 5 18 ,94 1 0 27 ,78 8 32 ,00 1 9 42 ,22 Dis miss 3 2 14 ,95 5 3, 79 5 13 ,89 4 16 ,00 3 6, 67 Tot al 2 14 10 0,00 1 32 10 0,00 3 6 10 0,00 5 2 10 0,00 4 5 10 0,00 Ankara No tice. 1 1 40 ,74 6 35 ,29 - - 1 7, 14 4 6, 25 Re prim. 1 2 44 ,44 8 47 ,06 - - - - 1 4 21 ,88 Ret ent. temp 1 3, 70 3 17 ,65 2 28 ,57 9 64 ,29 1 9 29 ,69 Dis miss. 3 11 ,11 - - 5 71 ,43 4 28 ,57 2 7 42 ,19 Tot al 2 7 10 0,00 1 7 10 0,00 7 10 0,00 4 1 10 0,00 6 4 10 0,00 İzmir No tice 2 7 33 ,33 2 3 53 ,49 4 16 ,00 2 13 ,33 3 15 ,79 Re prim 2 7 33 ,33 7 16 ,28 6 24 ,00 6 40 ,00 2 10 ,53 Ret ent. Temp. 1 7 20 ,99 9 20 ,93 8 32 ,00 6 40 ,00 1 3 68 ,42 Dis miss. 1 0 12 ,35 4 9, 30 7 28 ,00 1 6, 67 1 5, 26 Tot al 8 1 10 0,00 4 3 10 0,00 2 5 10 0,00 5 1 10 0,00 1 9 10 0,00 Bursa No tice 7 30 ,43 4 0 71 ,43 4 50 ,00 - - 6 27 ,27 Re prim. 8 34 ,78 1 0 17 ,86 1 12 ,50 5 10 0,00 1 5 68 ,18 Ret ent. Temp. 7 30 ,43 6 10 ,71 2 25 ,00 - - 1 4, 55 Dis miss. 1 4, 35 - - 1 12 ,50 - - - - Tot al 2 3 10 0,00 5 6 10 0,00 8 10 0,00 5 10 0,00 2 2 10 0,00 Alper Tunga Alkan Antalya No tice 6 20 ,69 5 45 ,45 - - 1 25 ,00 - - Re prim 8 1 62 ,07 4 36 ,36 3 60 ,00 2 50 ,00 4 10 0,00 Ret ent. Temp. 3 10 ,34 1 9, 09 1 20 ,00 1 25 ,00 - - Dis mis 2 6, 90 1 9, 09 1 20 ,00 - - - - Tot al 9 2 10 0,00 1 1 10 0,00 5 10 0,00 4 10 0,00 4 10 0,00 Konya No tice 1 7, 69 4 50 ,00 - - - - - - Re prim. 9 69 ,23 3 37 ,50 4 10 0,00 - - 1 14 ,29 Ret ent Temp. 3 23 ,08 - - - - - - 5 71 ,43 Dis mis. - - 1 12 ,50 - - - - 1 14 ,29 Tot al 3 1 10 0,00 8 10 0,00 4 10 0,00 0 0 7 10 0,00 Adana No tice 3 18 ,75 9 60 ,00 2 16 ,67 1 11 ,11 2 25 ,00 Re prim 7 43 ,75 2 13 ,33 3 25 ,00 5 55 ,56 3 37 ,50 Ret ent. Temp 5 31 ,25 2 13 ,33 7 58 ,33 3 33 ,33 - - Dis miss. 1 6, 25 2 13 ,33 - - - - 3 37 ,50 Tot al 6 1 10 0,00 5 1 10 0,00 2 1 10 0,00 9 10 0,00 8 10 0,00 Gaziantep No tice - - - - - - - - - - Re prim 5 26 ,32 2 15 ,38 1 16 ,67 - - - - Ret ent Temp 4 1 73 ,68 6 46 ,15 3 50 ,00 3 60 ,00 5 83 ,33 Dis miss - - 5 38 ,46 2 33 ,33 2 40 ,00 1 16 ,67 Tot al 9 1 10 0,00 3 1 10 0,00 6 10 0,00 5 10 0,00 6 10 0,00 Mersin No tice 7 12 ,50 9 1 54 ,29 3 42 ,86 1 25 ,00 - - Re prim. 3 2 41 ,07 1 1 31 ,43 2 28 ,57 1 25 ,00 - - Ret ent. Temp. 2 1 21 ,43 3 8, 57 1 14 ,29 1 25 ,00 - - Under Disciplinary Regulations Dis miss 4 1 25 ,00 2 5, 71 1 14 ,29 1 25 ,00 - - Tot al 6 5 10 0,00 5 3 10 0,00 7 10 0,00 4 10 0,00 0 0 Kocaeli No tice 1 12 ,50 2 33 ,33 3 60 ,00 2 33 ,33 1 50 ,00 Re prim 5 62 ,50 - - - - 4 66 ,67 - - Ret ent. Temp 1 12 ,50 2 33 ,33 2 40 ,00 - - - - Dis miss. 1 12 ,50 2 33 ,33 - - - - 1 50 ,00 Tot al 8 10 0,00 6 10 0,00 5 10 0,00 6 10 0,00 2 10 0,00 When regarded to ten provinces where there are the most members of profession, it is seen the provinces İstanbul, Ankara, İzmir, Bursa, Antalya, Konya, Adana, Gaziantep, Mersin, and Kocaeli. These provinces are also the ones having the highest population density and in turn taxpayer density. In the first order of list, Istanbul takes place. In Istanbul, between the years of 2008-2012, while the most imposed penalty was reprimand, in the years of 2013 and 2014, the penalty retention temporarily takes place in the first order. In the time period of interest, the penalty received the least in the time period of interest is the penalty of dismissing from profession. In the province Ankara taking place in the second order of the list, the most imposed penalty in the years of 2012 and 2014 is retention from profession, while in 2013, the penalty of retention from the professional activities became the most imposed penalties. The least imposed penalty, in the years of 2012-2014, the retention from professional activities temporarily, in 2013, no reprimand was imposed. In 2014, the least imposed penalty was notice. There is İzmir in the third number of the list. In İzmir, in the years of 2008-2010 notice and reprimand were the most imposed penalties; in 2011, notice; in the years of 2012 and 2014, retention from professional activities, temporarily; and in 2013, reprimand. In the province of interest, except for 2012, in the other slices of time, while the least imposed penalty was retention from profession, in 2012 it became notice. When it is generally considered, in the time interval of interest, while the penalty received in these provinces was reprimand (433), the least received penalty is retention from profession (157). Alper Tunga Alkan Table 5. Ten Provinces Where There Are The Members of Profession in The Least Number and Details of Penalties Received Pro vince Sort s of Penaltie s Number of disciplinary penalties 2 0082010 % 2 011 % 2 012 % 2 013 % 2 014 Muş Noti ce - - - - - - - - Repr imand - - - - - - - - Rete ntion temporar ily - - - - - - - - Dis missing - - 1 1 00,00 1 1 00,00 - - - Tota l 0 0 1 1 00,00 1 1 00,00 0 0 0 Bitlis Noti ce - - - - - - - - - Repr imand - - - - - - - - - Rete ntion temporar . - - - - - - - - - Dis missing - - - - - - - - - Tota l 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Gümüşhane Noti ce - - - - - - - - - Repr imand 1 1 00,00 - - - - - - - Rete ntion temporar . - - - - - - - - - Dis missing - - - - - - - - - Tota l 1 1 00,00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Noti ce - - - - - - - - - Repr imand - - - - - - - - - Rete ntion temporar . - - - - - - - - - Under Disciplinary Regulations Dis missing - - - - - - - - - Tota l 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Artvin Noti ce - - - - - - - - - Repr imand - - - - - - - - - Rete ntion temporar . - - - - - - - - - Dis missing - - - - - - - - - Tota l 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Çankırı Noti ce - - - - - - - - - Repr imand - - - - - - - - - Rete ntion temporar . - - - - - - - - - Dis missing - - - - - - - - - Tota l 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Bartın Noti ce - - - - - - - - - Repr imand - - - - - - - - - Rete ntion temporar . - - - - - - - - - Dis missing - - - - - - - - - Tota l 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Kırşehir Noti ce - - 1 1 00,00 - - - - - Repr imand - - - - - - - - - Rete ntion temporar . - - - - - - - - - Dis missing - - - - - - - - - Alper Tunga Alkan Tota l 0 0 1 1 00,00 0 0 0 0 0 Niğde Noti ce - - - - - - - - - Repr imand - - - - - - 1 5 0,00 - Rete ntion temporar . - - 1 5 0,00 - - 1 5 0,00 - Dis missing - - 1 5 0,00 - - - - - Tota l 0 0 2 1 00,00 0 0 2 1 00,00 0 Kars Noti ce 4 1 00,00 - - - - - - - Repr imand - - - - 1 1 00,00 - - - Rete ntion temporar . - - - - - - - - - Dis missing - - - - - - - - - Tota l 4 1 00,00 0 0 1 1 00,00 0 0 0 Ten provinces, where there are the member of profession in the least number, in other words, having the least share in terms of the number of member of profession are Muş, Bitlis, Gümüşhane, Sinop, Artvin, Çankırı, Bartın, Kırşehir, Niğde and Kars, respectively. These provinces of interest are the ones, both whose population density is not more, and where the number of taxpayer is less. In the province Muş, taking place in the first order of list, in the selected slice of time, in only the years of 2011 ve 2012, while only one the penalty of dismissing from profession, no other penalty was not imposed. There is Bitlis in the second order of list. In this province, no penalty was not imposed in the period specified. In the province Gümüşhane is in third order that follows Bitlis, only in the years of 2008 and 2010, one reprimand was imposed. When generally regarded to, in the selected time intervals, in these provinces under consideration, it is seen that in total, 5 penalty of notice, 3 reprimand, and 2 retention from professional activity temporally were imposed. Under Disciplinary Regulations Table 6. With Proportioning of Penalties to The Number of Members of Profession, The Provinces Receiving The Penalty in The Most Number I tem No 2008-2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Pro vinces % Pro vinces % Pro vinces % Pro vinces % Pro vinces % 1 Kır klareli 6 ,25 Dzce ,14 5 Mu ş ,23 3 Niğ de ,60 1 Ma nisa ,07 1 2 Va n 4 ,72 Mu ş ,23 3 Kırı kkale ,71 1 Ma nisa ,22 1 Edir ne ,05 1 3 Yal ova 4 ,35 Tra bzon ,94 2 Fet hiye ,19 1 Bol u ,65 0 Tra bzon ,91 0 4 Hat ay 4 ,29 Edi rne ,48 2 Mal atya ,00 1 Siv as ,61 0 İske nderun ,90 0 5 Tek irdağ 4 ,04 K ahya ,40 2 Kar s ,83 0 Kay seri ,53 0 Bur dur ,90 0 6 Kırı kkale 3 ,89 Me rsin ,32 2 Ay dın ,76 0 Am asya ,53 0 Çan akkale ,74 0 7 Me rsin 3 ,66 Ay dın ,75 1 Bod rum ,72 0 Çor um ,51 0 Bat man ,69 0 8 Kar s 3 ,45 Niğ de ,67 1 Adı yaman ,65 0 Ad ana ,45 0 Bod rum ,69 0 9 Mal atya 3 ,10 Riz e ,63 1 K ahya ,65 0 Koc aeli ,44 0 Bol u ,65 0 1 0 Diy arbakır 2 ,95 Bur sa ,52 1 Ala nya ,63 0 Tra bzon ,37 0 Adı yaman ,57 0 Note: The total number of members of profession and the imposed penalties are specified in Table 2. Besides the different population and taxpayer densities, that the members of profession are also in the different densities in terms of numerical distribution requires making proportion in calculating the share of penalty distribution on the basis of provinces. In the analysis of penalties imposed toward this in terms of their rates to the number of members of profession, a different situation emerges. In the years of 2008-2010, 6.25% of 288 members of profession, who are present in Kırklareli, received penalty. This stuation is followed by Van, Yalova, Hatay, Tekirdağ, Kırıkkale, Mersin, Kars, Malatya, and Diyarbakır respectively. In 2011, 5.14 % of 175 members of profession in Düzce received penalty. This is followed by Muş, Trabzon, Edirne, Kütahya, Mersin, Aydın, Niğde, Rize, and Bursa respectively. In 2012, 3.23% of 31 members of profession in Muş received penalty. This is followed by Kırıkkale, Fethiye, Malatya, Kars, Aydın, Bodrum, Adıyaman, Kütahya, and Alanya respectively. In 2013, 1.60% of 125 members of profession in Niğde received penalty. This is followed by Manisa, Bolu, Sivas, Kayseri, Amasya, Çorum, Adana, Kocaeli and Trabzon respectively. In 2014, 1.07% of 842 members of profession in Manisa received penalty. This is followed by Edirne, Trabzon, İskenderun, Burdur, Çanakkale, Batman, Bodrum, Bolu, and Adıyaman respectively. When generally regarded to, with proportioning of penalties to the number of members of profession, although the table of province that emerges shows diversity, it is possible to interpret as an indicator of that management mechanism does not work actively. 6. Conclusion In terms of its responsibility to their shareholders, the profession of accounting is evaluated as the most important professions. The members of accounting profession have responsibilities, on the one hand, to their taxpayers (clients), on the other hand, both to investors and to the government, in turn, to all society, because of the case of “tax”. Alper Tunga Alkan When the responsibility area is taken into consideration, in the accounting profession whose output is information, the rate of fault should be at the minimum level or even if there should not be any fault. Just as the smallest fault may cause to make faulty decisions about the future of taxpayers, it will also lead investors to make the wrong decisions and, making the wrong statement to the government, to pay for the faulty tax and hence, to commit a crime toward all society. When it is considered that the area of social responsibility is extremely large, supervision of the members of the accounting profession and elimination of the problems, identified as a result of supervision activity, have a great importance. However, the point that should be pay attention here is that the source of fault in the frequently made transactions is correctly identified and in this context, that the members of accounting professions should be trained by chambers of profession. In addition, the penalty sanctions to be applied should have a deterrent feature. Although the penalty sanctions are determined by laws due to inadequate supervision activities, the necessary actions cannot be taken in place and in time. In Turkey, since supervision of the members of accounting professions subjects to the demand and complaint, this case impedes the effective and continuous supervision. Just as the presence of a systematic supervision that does not depend on the complaint and demand will lead the members of profession to exhibit more careful attitudes and behaviors, at the same time, due to its deter feature, without needing any disciplinary penalty, the faults to be kept at the minimum and an acceptable level. According to the findings that are obtained in the study, as a result of supervisions carried out between the years 2000-2014 in Turkey, it was identified that 1786 members of professions received penalty. Among the penalties, reprimand takes place in the first order. When the members of professions to whom the penalty was imposed, are evaluated on the basis of the province, where they are in active, it was determined that the most penalty was imposed in the province Istanbul. Then the number of penalties, imposed in the provinces of Ankara, İzmir, Bursa, Antalya, Konya, Adana, Gaziantep, Mersin, and Kocaeli, are taken into consideration, it is seen that these take place among the first ten provinces. The ordering of provinces, where the penalties at the least number is imposed, was identified as the provinces (Muş, Bitlis, Gümüşhane, Sinop, Artvin, Çankırı, Bartın, Kırşehir, Niğde and Kars) where the members of accounting profession in the least number are in active. Another conclusion of the study, even though an increase which can be considered important, it is seen in the number of the members of accounting profession in Turkey is that the penalties imposed on the members of profession, do not exhibit in the same rate. As the reason for this, it is possible to produce several different scenarios. It is possible to introduce this situation as the educational activities about making conscious the chambers of profession, deterrence of penalty, the deficiency of supervision or not being able to make effectively and not efficiently operating of the complaint and demand mechanism in Turkey. As a conclusion, it is necessary to continuously and effectively realize the supervisions toward the members of profession in a certain intervals without depending on any demand or complaint. In this way, enabling the members of profession both to develop themselves and more effectively work, the increase of value of profession in care of society will be under consideration. References 2009 – 2014 Yılları Arası TÜRMOB Faaliyet Raporları (TURMOB Annual Reports Between the Years 2009 – 2014). Retrieved August 15, 2015, from http://www.turmob.org.tr/TurmobWeb/FaliyetRaporu.aspx. Apak, T. (2006). Muhasebe Meslek Mensupları Anketi Üzerine Bir Değerlendirme (A Survey Assesment about Professional Accountants). Retrieved January 1, 2010. From http://www.alomaliye.com/agustos_06/talha_apak_muhmeslek.htm. Arıkan, Y. (2000). Kamuoyunda Mesleki İtibarımızı Yok Eden Haksız Rekabete Gelin Hep Birlikte Son Verelim (Let's End Together The Unfair Competition Which Destroy Our Professional Credibility In Public Opinion). Mali Çözüm Dergisi. 52, 1-7. Under Disciplinary Regulations Arıkan, Y. (2004). Türk Muhasebe Mesleğindeki Gelişmelerin Ortaya Çıkardığı Sorunlar ve Çözüm Önerileri (Problems and Proposed Solutions Which Has Gone Forth by Developments in the Turkish Accounting Profession). Mali Çözüm Dergisi. 69, 7-13. Banar, K. & Aslan, Ü. (2009). Muhasebe Meslek Mensuplarının Almış Oldukları Disiplin Cezaları Üzerine Bir Araştırma (2000 – 2008 Dnemi) (A Research on Disciplinary Penalties Received by Members of Accounting Profession (2000-2008 Term). Muhasebe ve Finansman Dergisi. 44, 91-110. Bilen, A. (2008). Doğu Anadolu Bölgesindeki Muhasebe Meslek Mensuplarının Profilleri, Etik Kurallarına Bakışları ve Meslek Sorunları Üzerine Bir Araştırma (Profiles of Accounting Profession Members in Eastern Anatolian Region, Their Views for Ethics Rules and A Survey Study on Professional Problems), Mali Çözüm. 85, 27-42. Kalaycı, Ş. & Tekşen, Ö. (2006). Muhasebecilik Mesleğinde Karşılaşılan Sorunlar ve Çözüm Önerileri: Isparta İl Merkezi Uygulaması (The Problems Faced In The Profession Of Accountancy And Suggestions For Solution; Practice In Isparta City Center). Muhasebe ve Finansman Dergisi. 31, 90-101. Özulucan, A. & Bengü, H. & Özdemir, F.S. (2010). Muhasebe Meslek Mensuplarının Güncel Sorunları, Uygulamada Karşılaştıkları Yetersizlikler ve Meslek Odalarından Beklentilerinin Unvanları ve Mesleki Deneyim Süreleri Yönüyle İncelenmesi: Türkiye Genelinde Bir Araştırma (Current Problems of Professional Accountants, Deficiencies in practice they encounter and The titles of the expectations of the Professional Chamber and Examination of the Aspect Professional Experience: Case of Turkey), Muhasebe ve Denetime Bakış, 31, 41-64. Serbest Muhasebecilik, Serbest Muhasebeci Mali Müşavirlik ve Yeminli Mali Müşavirlik Kanunu Disiplin Yönetmeliği (Independent Accountants, Certified Public Accountant and Chartered Accountant Law Disciplinary Regulations). Retrieved August 15, 2015, from https://www.tesmer.org.tr/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=93&Itemid=101 Uzay, Ş. & Tanç, Ş.G. (2004). Muhasebecilerin Sorunları ve Beklentileri: Kayseri ve Nevşehir İlleri Uygulaması (The Problems Faced by the Accountants and Their Expectations: Kayseri and Nevşehir Sample). Muhasebe ve Finansman Dergisi. 22, 94-104. Yereli, A.B. (2006). Muhasebe Meslek Mensupları Anketi: Mesleki Profil, Sorunlar, Çözüm Önerileri (Accounting Professionals Survey: Occupational Profile, Problems, and Solutions). Retrieved December 10, 2010, from http://www.alomaliye.com/agustos_06/muhmeslek.htm. The Fourth Industrial Revolution and Expectations Related to Workforce Ari Kovanci 1. Introduction There are increasingly widespread views about the fact that we are in the beginning of a new industrial revolution. The revolution is expected to bring about many changes in economic, social, legal and political life. From this point of view, it is worthwhile to emphasize what needs to be done in terms of putting forth the process and the innovations it brings and adapting this process. The aim of the work is to look for expectations related to workforce in the context of the fourth industrial revolution and what needs to be done for the meeting of these expectations. In this context, firstly fourth industrial revolution and new technologies on which this revolution is based are emphasized. Then, the role of the workforce in the process of the implementetation of the fourth industrial revolution is mentioned. Finally, it is emphasized that the necessary labor force needs to be addressed in order for the countries and, if necessary, the enterprises to adapt to the fourth stage of industrialization, and various suggestions are given in this respect. 2. The Fourth Industrial Revolution The industrial revolution, seen as the starting point of the economic, social and political relations of these days is historically regarded as a turning point for societies. The multidimensional effects that have emerged in connection with the industrial revolution have caused a radical change in economic, social, legal and political life (Grçn, 2016). It is possible to deal with the industrial revolutions of the period in the process from past to present. The first is the first industrial revolution, which started in the early 1760s, characterized by the discovery of steam power, the expansion of railway transport and the mechanization of production. The second industrial revolution was evident in the 1890s with new techniques in production such as increased use of electricity, assembly line and serial production. The third industrial revolution that began in the 1960s came about with the widespread use of computers and internet. At present, it is possible to express that we are at the beginning of a fourth revolution. This revolution is based on the digital technologies of the third industrial revolution and is characterized by a wide range of innovations in the digital field such as artificial intelligence, that is, the biological field and the physical field (World Economic Forum, 2017). The concept of the fourth industrial revolution (or "Industry 4.0" as it is often expressed) was first used in the Hannover Exhibition in Germany in 2011 (Schwab, 2016), where we have witnessed a shift towards the factory today, using steam power in terms of production processes. New technologies production devices that are able to communicate with each other such as cyber physical systems, internet, intelligent factories, artificial intelligence, three-dimensional printers, large data, cloud computing, autonomous robots and next generation mobile internet technologies are taking the lead in the fourth industrial revolution (Özdoğan, 2017). Indeed, it is possible to state that the fourth stage of the industrialization we are really starting with is from many technologies and new combinations that they have created among themselves, and from this point of view, the fourth industrial revolution, knowledge, communication, internet, data collection and dissemination technologies are integrated with new production possibilities (Banger, 2017). Nevertheless, the concept of the fourth industrial revolution can be described as the flexible production process, in which each part of the supply chain works in an integrated manner with each other and is called intelligent production. In this sense, it is possible to say that with the recent industrial revolution, the manufacturing industry wants to be equipped with internet technology to increase its productivity. Future production involves personalized production, that is, personalized production, in which production is created in the design and creation of added value in the initial stages of production by customers and business stakeholders (Kabakarlı, 2016). Ari Kovanci The main aim of the fourth industrial revolution, which is rapidly gaining widespread in the process we are in, is the misinterpretation of clever factories that have self-managing production processes without the need for human power. In the process, it is seen that hybrid technologies that are produced by the blending of computer, communication and internet technologies have an important place (Önday, 2017). In this sense, not only people but also machines and equipments communicate with each other and fulfill their functions in this communications framework, so that autonomous systems, which are largely independent of the people, will experience a near–term when we cover almost all phrases of production and supply chains besides our lives, and that they fulfill their functions in this communication framework so that autonomous systems that are largely free from human beings can be found in almost all of our production and supply chains there is a widespread opinion that there will be a near-immediate period in which all stages are covered (Grç, 2016). The handling of the focal points of the process of technological change that we like with the fourth industrial revolution or another name can provide important predictions about the potential effects of the process and the developments that may occur later on. At the same time, such as a point of view may be useful in determining expectations about your future workforce and the skills that it requires. In this context, first of all, one of the most prominent features of this new technological era is that it should be linked in such a way that it will become a value chain of devices, machines, sensors and information communication systems. This chain is not confined to a single business, but connects other components of the business' ecosystem. Devices and machines that work in conjunction with each other in the context of the fourth industrial revolution are called cyber physical systems. Cyber physical systems enable the analysis of faults in the system and discovery of source causes to stop unexpected interruption of workflow, changing parameters and working status depending on changing conditions. Newly-renovated machines use some of the data they acquire through sensors to organize their own work, while some send data to the cloud computing depot, where data extractions take place for further analysis and evaluation. The aim of this process is to improve consumption and reduce costs while at the same time creating more flexible, faster, uninterrupted and efficient processes. In this context, it has led to some questions about what features the worker should have on the right, one of the most important factors of production, even when the latter is in operation (Banger, 2017). Secondly, internet of things from the elements of the driving force of the fourth industrial revolution (Schwab, 2016) is the transfer of data from an object, that is, from a device, from a smart reader, from a machine, from an object or from a human, to other systems through a network. It is possible that intelligent readers can transmit data to the relevant system by embedding data into many devices, transmitting data over wireless readers and the network, and without requiring additional human intervention. Future factories are focused on how these and similar applications can be used intensely (Özdoğan, 2017). Indeed, the fourth industrial revolution strategy requires the use of the internet of objects and the internet, much more than the old one, in the interaction between people and machines in the realization of the rational production (Kabaklarlı, 2016). Thirdly, the factories that make up the production systems of the rational factories in which the fourth industrial revolutionary practices are carried out are the factories which function autonomously and in communication with each other. it seems that factories, unlike traditional factories, are trying to be structured so that they will intervene when an extraordinary situation occurs. In this sense, machines, robots and other equipment in an ordinary process exhibit an autonomous nature. Smart factories already created in its entirety system of advanced technological developments, in the case of a communication continuum with external factors, real-time data obtained with this aspect are systems that can be used effectively in the production process. Energy consumption, material flows are the key elements of real-time data-intensive factories for customers' orders and suppliers (Gçn, 2016). Fourthly, another one of the elements of the industrial revolution (Davutoglu, Akgül & Yıldız, 2017) is an artificial intelligence, which will shape the future industrial production. Artificial intelligence is a scientific discipline that aims to enable machines to have the ability to reason, utilize past knowledge, plan, absorb, communicate, perceive, move objects and relocate. Machine learning algorithms, based on artificial intelligence applications enable computers to make decisions using experiences they have gained up to that moment such as when have never met before. With artificial The Fourth Industrial Revolution and Expectations Related to Workforce intelligence, it has been attempted to ensure that robots or machines have the ability to make a part of human behavior, such as decision-making and communication. However, in the future it is foreseen that artificial intelligences will communicate in a meaningful way among themselves (Öztuna, 2017). Fifth, three-dimensional printers are the machines that transform digital three-dimensional computer data into real objects that can be held by hand. All mechanical parts except the electronic parts and motors can be printed with three-dimensional printers. It is envisaged that these devices, which can be used in all kinds of jobs from medical to industry, from city planning, to food significantly have an important place in production and innovation. With these printers bringing revolutionary changes and innovations in production technology, creative ideas, and designs can be quicklytransformed into real models, end products, pieces or protypes (Davutoğlu et al., 2017). From this point of view, it is possible to express that the products made with the three-dimensional printer which ad re different from the manufactured goods produced in series are very easily customizable to the wishes of the costumers (Schwab, 2016). Finally, large data which is one of the pillars of the fourth industrial revolution is the method of obtaining and using electronic data obtained through machines, devices and servises. Governments, businesses and institutions use this method for different purposes (Kabaklarlı, 2016). Large data; such as logs from web servers, internet statistics, social media publications, blogs, microblogs, information from climate sensors and similar sensors, and call records from GSM operators. It is required to collect data from many different sources with large data and to evaluate these data in a comprehensive manner. Thus, it is aimed to increase the quality of the production, to save energy and to facilitate the maintenance of the equipment. However, when large data is interpreted with accurate analysis methods, it is of great importance to increase competitiveness in this process in order to ensure that enterprises take strategic decisions in accordance with their objectives, better manage their risks and innovate (Davutoğlu et al., 2017). In this context, when the mentioned technologies which the fourth industrial revolution is based on the point of view of their working life, opinions about how we are in the beginning are going to have a significant impact on many fields, from working conditions, new professions, employment, social security system or unionism (Öztuna, 2017). From this point of view, it is possible to look at the effects of the fourth industrial revolution in general in this study: (i) It takes the place of traditional power plants based on machines and intelligent factories that are dominated by intelligence. (ii) From serial production to special production and intelligent products according to customer needs (iii) production can be done even in houses by means of three dimensional printer, and each consumer turns into a producer at the same time. (iv) real-time data and information exchange of production facilities and products. The defect and the margin of error in the production are minimized. (v) Raw materials and resource consumption are reduced the most, productivity increases and energy can be used more efficiently. (vi) Thanks to self-organizing production processes, the need for production resources (energy, human, machine, etc.) is reduced, and robots and machines are becoming the production processes. (vii) The employment structure is changing when the spread of the robots reduces the need for body power and the mind power is brought to the forefront. As a consequence of this process, it is expected that some types of professions will gradually disappear and new career professions will appear (Aegean Region Chamber of Industry Research Directorate, 2017). 3. Fourth Industrial Revolution and Expectations Related to Workforce It is expected that the fourth industrial revolution and the developments it brings together will have a significant effect on both daily life and working life. Considering the effects on the competitive environment of the rapid change experienced in this process, it is possible to say that maintining adaptation to change is usually done in a similar way to maintining entities in the enterprise. From this point of view, innovations and technological developments brought about by the fourth industrial revolution in terms of enterprices have to put into practice. First of all, it is important to determine the changes in question and to determine what needs to be done in order to realize them. In this sense, it is emphasized that a detailed strategy should be followed in order to have knowledge about the changes Ari Kovanci that the fourth industrial revolution will bring about and to adapt to these changes (Aegean Region Chamber of Industry Research Institute, 2017). Businesses should have developed their structural characteristics in order to be able to adapt to the process of the fourth industrial revolution and to fulfill the process required by this process (Grçn, 2016). In this context, it emphasizes that in addition to new technologies in the process of establishing new working and life conditions from the fourth stage of industrialization we are in the beginning, the workforce to transform and use these technologies and develop them will play an important role (Banger, 2017). Indeed, workforce has an important role in the realization of the implementation of the fourth industrial revolution (Öztuna, 2017). It is at the forefront of the most important issues that the workforce can develop and use new technological elements in the process of the fourth industrial revolution. If the businesses do not have the potential to develop technologically, or if there are various constrains that may arise depending on the factors of production, it may be difficult to fulfill the requirements of the fourth industrial revolution precess (Grçn, 2017). On the other hand, robotic systems used in intelligent factories during the fourth industrial revolution are expected to lift the need for human power to a large extent (Grçn, 2016). However, in the course of the fourth industrial revolution, it is emphasized that automation systems and robots are able to take care of the higher value-added activities of the workforce, taking the responsibility of the employees, which leads to the inefficiency of the labor force (Öztuna, 2017). With the fourth industrial revolution, it is expected that product and service development processes will instantly enable product innovation in a personalized manner, and even an innovation in which customers are involved in the product development process. In this sense, it emphasizes that in the course of the fourth industrial revolution, workers will spend their intellectual work, rather than muscle power (Öztuna, 2017). In this sense, it is emphasized that especially the new technologies will have the relevance to the required workforce (ie the generally specialized workforce) as well as the change of the skills required in this process. The advanced manufacturing industry requires employees with multidisciplinary competencies that combine mechanics, electronics, software knowledge and skills (United Nations Industrial Development Organization, 2013). Indeed, new roles are emerging throughout the value chain in knowledge management, and new computer modeling simulation tools and data analysis increasingly require analytical expertise. As processes and machines become increasingly interdependent, sophisticated systems of thought and cyber security skills become more important. At the same time, skills are becoming more important in real-time decision-making as it is the knowledge of international standards. In general, it is possible to say that it is now possible to provide all the benefits of collecting when significant innovations can be placed by technicians, engineers and managers in new product, process and manufacturing systems at an industrial scale. However, jobs created in the manufacturing industry are expected to boost demand for a workforce equipped with mixed skills, including deep technical expertise (United Nations Industrial Development Organization, 2013). In this context, it is expected that the demand for high quality labor will increase with the widespread use of new technologies in the context of the fourth industrial revolution. (Banger, 2017). Among the qualities expected of a workforce to work in your future factory are; information systems capabilities and capabilities, data and information processing competence and analytics, statistical knowledge accumulation, organizational state, and business processes through well-meaning modern interfaces (such as human-robot interfaces). (Özdoğan, 2017). However, it emphasizes that skills such as technology use, problem solving, adapting to new situations, flexibility, co-creativity and creativity are important for the workforce (Banger, 2017). However, at this stage of industrialization, it is stated that creativity is important for an employee to produce new products or to be successful in discovering or using new technologies (Öztuna, 2017). Indeed, it is expected that a significant portion of the employment created in this process will be in high-income cognitive and creative jobs, but that employment in routine and repetitive jobs at middle-income levels will decline dramatically (Schwab, 2016). Other expectations about your future workforce The Fourth Industrial Revolution and Expectations Related to Workforce include individual time management, rapid response and clarity of change, dominance and predisposition to teamwork, and social and communication skills (Özdoğan, 2017). 4. Fulfillment of the Labor Force Expectation in the Fourth Industrial Revolution It is important that the fourth industrial revolution should determine the development points of the development and change in order for the countries and the enterprises to adapt to the process and to put forward the effect on the labor force in the long term (Aegean Region Chamber of Industry Research Directorate, 2017). However, the ability to predict the need for knowledge and skills to adapt to this process, which affects both daily life and working life, has become a necessity for all stakeholders (Schwab, 2016). In terms of adaptation to changes in production and technology, it emphasizes the need to set priorities and improve the quality of the workforce (Aegean Region Chamber of Industry Research Directorate, 2017). Indeed, in this process the knowledge within the fourth industrial revolution is characterized as one of the hurdles to overcome the need for skilled labor to use communication, design, production and management systems (Banger, 2017). Depending on the possible effects of technological developments in the context of the fourth industrial revolution, the preperation of the current and new workforce for the conditions of the next period is one of the issues to be emphasized. However, it emphasizes that while the skills and abilities of the workforce in the factory of the future are being improved, they must be supplemented with innovations (Banger, 2017). While the expectation that the industrialization will be experienced at this stage varies considerably from the sector to the sector, having the necessary skills in the workforce in the different sectors has an important priority, but also has various difficulties (European Commission, 2016). The need for intellectual power during the fourth industrial revolution brings with it the necessity of increasing the level of education and quality first of all. In this context, it is possible to discuss education as one of the most important elements in meeting expectations of your future workforce. At this stage of industrialization; it is important to establish an educational infrastructure suitable for the fourth industrial revolution with preparations such as the provision of a qualified workforce capable of producing and using intelligent machines and intelligent products, the training of specialized production engineers, the construction of perceptible cyber physical systems, and the updating of curricula from primary school to university (Aegean Region Chamber of Industry Research Directorate, 2017). It emphasizes that education systems need to be restructured in accordance with new technology (Banger, 2017). Important suggestions are given in order to create stronger education systems within the scope of the study on the realization of the human potential in the Fourth Industrial Revolution, which was developed by the World Economic Forum with in-depth consultations with field experts and practitioners. It is possible to handle them in the following way: (i) Increasing access to early childhood education; (ii) Ensuring that the education program is organized to include preparations for the future; (iii)Providing a specialized workforce in terms of employment in the field of education and investing in the development of this workforce; (iv) Career guidance; (v) Investment in the development of literacy skills in information and communication technologies; (vi) Provision of qualified vocational and technical education and training; (vii) Creation of a lifelong learning culture; (viii) It is open to innovation in education (World Economic Forum, 2017). On the other hand, the effects and transformation of the fourth industrial revolution are not limited to only existing factories, technology or workers. It is emphasized that it is necessary to prepare the next generations to this industrial revolution. In this context, it is stated that the lFor example, it is expressed that more data workers can be trained in relation to the future turnaround, especially if the literacy of the information technology studied is given in early education. However, in the near future it emphasizes the need for people who can read the interfaces well, depending on whether they are in constant contact with humans and robots or machines. Nevertheless, it is important to communicate knowledge-related issues in early education in order to be a good new-generation factory worker and to use technology appropriate to the fourth industrial revolution. It is emphasized that in Ari Kovanci order to be able to adapt to all intelligent technologies, to be able to understand easily and learn rapidly, it is necessary to educate early age of meeting with information systems (Özdoğan, 2017). Technological changes expected to shape the future of the manufacturing industry in the course of the fourth industrial revolution are expected to come to the forefront of qualified and multi-faceted employees due to the transformation of the workforce's skills to be possessed (United Nations Industrial Development Organization, 2013). earning of various concepts should be reduced to early education and even primary school level. In this sense, it is of great importance that the world of work, the labor market regulators and workers' trade unions correctly identify the knowledge, skills and level possessed at present and develop policies for the future against possible problems that may arise in terms of meeting their skill needs (Öztuna, 2017). On the other hand, in the course of the fourth industrial revolution, integration between universities and businesses is required. The fact that individuals who will graduate from college and participate in the labor market have the knowledge and accumulation that can adapt to the fourth industrial revolution is becoming important in this process. However, it is necessary for employees of the human resources departments in the workplace to continually plan training programs on new technologies and to give immediate feedback on the results of the training (Öztuna, 2017). In this respect, it is expected that the production of high quality, high value added products will be more important in terms of businesses than the mass production. In this process, in order to achieve a successful transformation of the enterprises, the focus is placed on the customers (Davutoglu et al., 2017). 5. Conclusion The fourth industrial revolution in the study and the changes that are expected to take place due to this revolution have been included. The role of the wokforce in dealing with the process of the fourth industrial revolution, which had recently begun, was death with. In this process, it is emphasized that the expected characteristics of the wokforce in the production and use of new products and technologies, which are one of the decisive factors in achieving competitive advantage. In this context, there are various expectations regarding the level of knowledge, skills and qualifications that the current workforce, or the next generations to participate in the working life, can adapt to this new technological turnaround we are at the very beginning. From this point of view, it is important to increase the level and quality of education in order to meet the expectations, and to prepare future generations in accordance with this process. Nevertheless, all actors of the working life must play an active role in meeting the expectation of the workforce in this process. 6. References Banger, G. (2017). Endüstri 4.0: Ekstra [Industry 4.0: Extra]. Ankara: Dorlion Yayınları. Davutoğlu, N. A., Akgül, A., & Yıldız E. (2017). İşletme Yönetiminde Sanayi 4.0 Kavramı ile Farkındalık Oluşturarak Etkin Bir Şekilde Değişimi Sağlamak [Economic Effects of Restructuring on Businesses and Sectors in Accordance with National industry 4.0]. The Journal of Academic Social Science, 52, 544-567. Ege Bölgesi Sanayi Odası Araştırma Müdürlüğü Aegean Region Chamber of Industry Research Directorate. (2017). Sanayi 4.0: Uyum Sağlamayan Kaybedecek. İzmir: Ege Bölgesi Sanayi Odası. European Commission. (2016). Accelerating the Digital Transformation of European Industry and Enterprises: Key Recommendations of the Strategic Policy Forum on Digital Entrepreneurship. Brussels: Strategic Policy Forum. Grçn, Ö. F. (2016). Dördüncü Endüstri Devrimi Endüstri 4.0 [The Fourth Industry Revolution Industry 4.0]. İstanbul: Beta Yayıncılık. Kabaklarlı, E. (2016). Endüstri 4.0 ve Paylaşım Ekonomisi Dünya ve Türkiye Ekonomisi İçin Fırsatlar, Etkiler ve Tehditler. Ankara: Nobel Akademik Yayıncılık. Önday, Ö. (2017). Dijital Dönüşüm [Digital Transformation]. Ankara: Gazi Kitabevi. The Fourth Industrial Revolution and Expectations Related to Workforce Özdoğan, O. (2017). Endüstri 4.0 Dördüncü Sanayi Devrimi ve Endüstriyel Dönüşümün Anahtarları [Industry 4.0 Fourth Industrial Revolution and the Keys of Industrial Transition]. İstanbul: Pusula 20 Teknoloji ve Yayıncılık. Öztuna, B. (2017). Endüstri 4.0 (Dördüncü Sanayi Devrimi) ile Çalışma Yaşamının Geleceği [The Future of Working Life with Industry 4.0 (Fourth Industrial Revolution)]. Ankara: Gece Kitaplığı. Schwab, K. (2016). Dördüncü Sanayi Devrimi [The Fourth Industry Revolution Industry]. Çev. ZlfDicleli. İstanbul: Optimist Yayım Dağıtım. United Nations Industrial Development Organization. (2013). Emerging Trends in Global Advanced Manufacturing: Challenges, Opportunities and Policy Responses. Cambridge: Policy Links. World Economic Forum. (2017). The Future of Jobs and Skills in the Middle East and North Africa: Preparing the Region for the Fourth Industrial Revolution. Switzerland: World Economic Forum. World Economic Forum. (2017). ASEAN 4.0: What does the Fourth Industrial Revolution mean for Regional Economic Integration? Switzerland: World Economic Forum. The Impact of Tourism Students’ Personalities on Their Service Orientations Tugrul Ayyildiz, Ahu Yazici Ayyildiz, Huseyin Erhan Altun 1. Introduction All the cognitive, behavioral and emotional characteristics that distinguish a person from other individuals are expressed by the concept of personality (Erkuş, 1994). According to Holland (1976), people choose the professions that are appropriate for their personality traits, which is positively reflected to their work performance (Serçeoglu, 2013). Service orientation is accepted as an element or dimension of personality by many scientists. Recruiting individuals with a high level of service orientation into the enterprise is an important for the enterprise to maintain its survival and reach its goals. Recruiting individuals with a high level of service orientation into the enterprise will bring in the employees that can learn quickly and act independently (Kuşluvan & Eren, 2011). Professional preferences of the individuals and the elements that are effective on these preferences are of the important issues that attract the interest of the researchers carrying out studies related to vocational education. Due to the fact that profession choice has a significant place among the preferences that individuals make throughout their lives, this issue is of great interest to researchers. Choosing an appropriate profession for the individual will have positive effects on his happiness and success. An individual's awareness of selecting his profession willingly by being conscious about the working conditions and working areas will enable him to perform as required. Not only will this situation lead to the satisfaction of the individual but also to the satisfaction of the individuals receiving the service (Seymen et al., 2017). In this respect, the main purpose of this study is to reveal the impact of tourism students’ personalities on the service orientations. 2. Personality The concept of personality is said to be derived from the Latin word "persona", which is used in the meaning of “mask”. “Persona” was regarded as a reflection of the characteristics of the character in the role rather than the real person behind the mask. Over time, the attitude and behavioral characteristics of the person happened to be comprehended with this concept (Aslan, 2008). Today, it is possible to define “personality” as the sum of the individual's peculiar and distinctive characteristics (Morgan, 2005). According to another definition, personality is the result of emotions and thoughts that the individual demonstrates towards his or her social environment (Bastem & Şeker, 2017). Personality is also expressed as the sum of all the tendencies that the individual has inherited and subsequently acquired. Within this context, establishing a relationship between the inherited and subsequently acquired, and organizing and managing them is an important feature that distinguishes the individual from other individuals (Kurt & Nartgün, 2014). Among the models developed for personality, the Five Factor Personality Inventory developed by Costa and McCrea (1992) is frequently used in the marketing and management literature. The inventory was created by reducing thousands of adjectives that characterizes the individuals to five dimensions. This model, which has been attracting attention for many years by countless academicians, has continued to develop even today and gained the trust of the researchers due to this characteristics (Yelboğa, 2006). The model is composed of five main dimensions reduced from plenty of adjectives that define individuals. It is possible to express these five factors as follows (Barrick & Mount, 1991; Rothmann & Coetzer, 2003). • Extroversion: Individuals with an extrovert personality type are the ones that are friendly, energetic, cheerful, looking for excitement and dominant, expressing what they think frankly, assertive, leading, and outgoing. Introvert individuals are, unlike extrovert individuals, those who are distant, calm, preferring loneliness and remaining in the background. Tugrul Ayyildiz, Ahu Yazici Ayyildiz, Huseyin Erhan Altun • Agreeableness: These people are involved in this dimension as they are the individuals that are eager to collaborate, sincere, tactful, trustworthy, courteous, straightforward and humble. They show compromising behaviors when they face problems, and avoid conflict between people and competition. Individuals who are skeptical, hard-headed, stubborn, competitive, prudent, aggressive, hostile, and indifferent to others have lower agreeableness score. • Emotional Stability: Individuals with emotional stability personality types are involved in this dimension because they are comfortable, self-confident, patient, open to criticism, and stress-tolerant individuals. Individuals who are the opposite of emotional stability behavior exhibit neurotic personality traits. The most prominent features of neurotic personality traits are being worried, tense, shy, anxious, insecure, and depressed. Neurotic individuals are quite unsuccessful in setting up and maintaining a healthy communication with the individuals around them. • Openness: Individuals with an openness personality type are highly open to development, creative, analytic, open to other people's views, sensitive, imaginative, adventurous, original, curious, oriented to their own feelings and thoughts, and have a broad intellectual curiosity. The ones with a lower openness personality are the individuals that are regarded as traditional, conservative, defending the facts, indifferent. • Conscientiousness: Individuals who are careful, systematic, determined, success-oriented, ambitious, ambitious, meticulous, dedicated to ethical principles, and patient are those with a high score of conscientiousness. Due to the fact that these individuals are responsible and exhibit determined behaviors, it is easy for them to achieve their goals. Individuals who are unplanned, eager to postpone, easily distracted, untidy, decision-making quickly, not very sticked to rules, and messy have lower conscientiousness dimension scores. 3. Service Orientation Service orientation is an extensively studied phenomenon which is a concept dealt both at the organization and at the individual level in the marketing and management literature (Teng & Barrows, 2009). The significance of the concept stems from the inevitable interaction of consumers and service providers, especially in the service enterprises. This interaction has a share in the competitive edge of the enterprises by significantly affecting customer satisfaction and loyalty (Kuşluvan et al., 2010). When tourism enterprises are the point in question, this mutual interaction can have vital importance, especially in the hospitality industry (Pizam, 2012). By definition, service orientation is; customer orientation (Hogan et al., 1984), the willingness to provide service and the ability to communicate interpersonally (Kuşluvan & Eren, 2011), or the sum of the features that will make a relational process available, which provides mutual benefits by creating solutions to the problems that consumers experience (Saxe & Weitz, 1982). It is expressed that personality traits and external factors have influence on the service orientation. The relationship between such personality traits as conscientiousness, agreeableness, extroversion, and emotional stability and service orientation was revealed in various researches (Pizam, 2012). In addition to this, it is also stated that the society and organizational culture, as external factors, are also influential on service orientation (Kuşluvan & Eren, 2011). Several scales were developed so as to measure service orientation (for example: Brown et al., 2002; Donavan et al., 2004; Sanchez & Fraser, 1993; Dienhart et al., 1992). The Service Orientation Inventory developed by Donavan et al. (2004) was developed on the basis of observable personality traits. The four dimensions of the scale were; the need to make the customers feel special and important, the need to understand the needs and desires of the customers, the desire to provide service for the customers successfully, and the need to build personal relationships with the customers (Başoda, 2012). Service orientation has important implications in terms of both the individual and the organization. Individual effects include such studies including the variables as employee performance, job satisfaction, continuance, organizational commitment and citizenship, turnover intention, role conflict and uncertainty; organizational effects include such studies including the variables as service quality, customer satisfaction and loyalty (Başoda, 2012; Kim et al., 2005; Donavan et al., 2004). The Impact of Tourism Students’ Personalities on Their Service Orientations 4. The Purpose and Significance of the Study Tourism employees are constantly in contact with the customers as they work in the service industry. This situation affects the satisfaction of the customers directly. Therefore, service orientations of tourism employees will also affect customer satisfaction directly. Tourism students work in different fields within the tourism industry. For this reason, tourism students’ service orientations are important both for the enterprises and customers and for the continuance of the students in this profession. The main purpose of this study is to reveal the impact of tourism students’ personalities on their service orientations. The sub-purpose of the study is to reveal whether there is a significant difference between the students' service orientations according to some demographic features. 5. Research Method The study is in the relational screening model. A questionnaire was used as the data collection tool in the study. The first section of the questionnaire included questions that involved the demographic features of the participants. In the second section of the questionnaire, a ten-item scale developed by Samuel D. Gosling, Peter J. Rentfrow and William B. Swann Jr. (2003) and adapted into Turkish language by Atak H. (2013) was used. In the third section of the questionnaire, a thirteen-item scale developed by D. Todd Donavan, Tom J. Brown and John C. Mowen (2004) and used by Başoda A. (2012) was used in order to determine the students' service orientations. In line with the responses obtained from the sample, the reliability of the scales was measured by Cronbach's alpha coefficient and these values were found as 0,631 for the personality scale and as 0,904 for the service orientation scale. These values indicate that the scales are highly reliable (Özdamar, 1999). The population of the research was composed of the tourism students studying at Adnan Menderes University School of Tourism and Hotel Management and Faculty of Tourism. Purposeful sampling selection was made from the population and a total of 455 students were reached. 6. Research Findings and Evaluation The answers given to the questionnaire collected from 420 students were evaluated by SPSS for Windows 18.0 statistical package programme. Whether the data was coded accurately was provided by comparing descriptive statistics, questionnaires and the values coded. 6.1. Personality Scale Factor Analysis The Personality Scale developed by Samuel D. Gosling, Peter J. Rentfrow and William B. Swann Jr. (2003) and adapted into Turkish by Atak H. (2013) was composed of 10 items and 5 dimensions. Before factor analysis was performed for the personality scale, reliability analysis was performed on the variables. In the first reliability analysis, the overall reliability of the scale was found as ,493. Reliability analysis was performed by excluding 4 items from the scale decreasing the reliability and the Cronbach alpha value of the scale was found as ,631, which indicated moderate level of reliability (Özdamar, 1999). Factor analysis was performed on the remaining 6 items. As a result of the Keyser-Meyer-Olkin Test obtained by factor analysis, the sample adequacy value was found as ,727, which is an appropriate value for factor analysis (Bykztrk, 2003). The Bartlett's Sphericity Test was used for the adequacy and significance of the correlation matrix. The adequacy and significance of the correlation matrix was found as ,000 and 275,132 ad these values were regarded as acceptable for performing factor analysis. As a result of the factor analysis performed, two dimensions were found as different from the original scale and these dimensions were named as introversion and extroversion. Tugrul Ayyildiz, Ahu Yazici Ayyildiz, Huseyin Erhan Altun Table 1: Personality Scale Factor Analysis Factor Loads Eigenvalue Explained Variance Cronbach Alpha INTROVERSION 2,148 35,798 0,432 Introversion 1 ,645 Introversion 2 ,485 Introversion 3 ,795 EXTROVERSION 1,057 17,622 0,606 Extroversion 1 747 Extroversion 2 ,669 Extroversion 3 ,748 All of the factor load values were above ,485. Varimax rotation was used in the analysis of the data. In the factor analysis, the data with an eigenvalue greater than 1 was taken into evaluation. When the factor matrix was evaluated, it was seen that the variables were united under 2 factors and that these 2 factors explained 53,420% of the total variance. These values indicated that the 2 factors were capable of explaining the variance explained by 6 variables. In the analyses in terms of the subsequent personality scale, two dimensions were used. 6.2. Service Orientation Scale Factor Analysis The Service Orientation Scale developed by D. Todd Donavan, Tom J. Brown and John C. Mowen (2004) and used by Başoda A. (2012) was composed of 13 items and 4 dimensions. Before factor analysis was performed for the service orientation scale, reliability analysis was performed on the variables. In the first reliability analysis, the overall reliability of the scale was found as ,904, which showed a high level of reliability (Özdamar, 1999). Factor analysis was performed on these 13 items. As a result of the first factor analysis, 1 item was excluded from the analysis as the item had a very similar value in two dimensions and factor analysis was performed again. As a result of the Keyser-Meyer-Olkin Test obtained by factor analysis, the sample adequacy value was found as 0,894, which is an appropriate value for factor analysis (Bykztrk, 2003). The Bartlett's Sphericity Test was used for the adequacy and significance of the correlation matrix. The adequacy and significance of the correlation matrix was found as ,000 and 2287,770 ad these values were regarded as acceptable for performing factor analysis. As a result of the factor analysis performed, three dimensions were found as different from the original scale and these dimensions were named as the need to serve successfully, the need to make them feel special, and the need to understand customer needs. The Impact of Tourism Students’ Personalities on Their Service Orientations Table 2: Service Orientation Scale Factor Analysis Factor Loads Eigenvalue Explained Variance Cronbach Alpha THE NEED TO SERVE SUCCESSFULLY 5,620 46,832 0,797 The need to serve successfully 1 ,765 The need to serve successfully 2 ,755 The need to serve successfully 3 ,688 The need to serve successfully 4 ,675 The need to serve successfully 5 ,647 THE NEED TO MAKE THEM FEEL SPECIAL 1,237 10,311 0,814 The need to make them feel special 1 ,859 The need to make them feel special 2 ,794 The need to make them feel special 3 ,741 The need to make them feel special 4 ,510 THE NEED TO UNDERSTAND CUSTOMER NEEDS 1.052 8,769 0,787 The need to understand customer needs 1 ,875 The need to understand customer needs 2 ,810 The need to understand customer needs 3 ,643 All of the factor load values were above ,510. Varimax rotation was used in the analysis of the data. In the factor analysis, the data with an eigenvalue greater than 1 was taken into evaluation. When the factor matrix was evaluated, it was seen that the variables were united under 3 factors and that these 3 factors explained 65,912% of the total variance. These values indicated that the 3 factors were capable of explaining the variance explained by 6 variables. In the analyses in terms of the subsequent service orientation scale, three dimensions were used. 6.3. The Difference in Terms of Gender and Whether They Chose the Profession Willingly The hypothesis established so as to determine whether there was a significant difference between the participants’ service orientations according to such demographic characteristics as the gender and whether they chose the profession willingly is as follows: H0: There is no significant difference between the students’ service orientations according to gender and whether they chose the profession willingly. H1: There is a significant difference between the students’ service orientations according to gender and whether they chose the profession willingly. Tugrul Ayyildiz, Ahu Yazici Ayyildiz, Huseyin Erhan Altun Table 3. T-test Results in Terms of the Students’ Service Orientations According to Their Gender and Whether They Chose the Profession Willingly Levene's Test for Equality of Variances t-test for Equality of Means Gender Sig. T Sig. (2tailed) The Need to Serve Successfully Equal variances assumed ,193 , 903 ,367 Equal variances not assumed , 907 ,365 The Need to Make Them Feel Special Equal variances assumed ,628 1 ,546 ,123 Equal variances not assumed 1 ,547 ,123 The Need to Understand Customer Needs Equal variances assumed ,207 , 551 ,582 Equal variances not assumed , 549 ,583 Whether They Chose the Profession Willingly Sig. T Sig. (2tailed) The Need to Serve Successfully Equal variances assumed ,483 , 831 ,407 Equal variances not assumed , 828 ,408 The Need to Make Them Feel Special Equal variances assumed ,707 , 619 ,536 Equal variances not assumed , 620 ,535 The Need to Understand Customer Needs Equal variances assumed ,153 2 ,040 ,042 Equal variances not assumed 2 ,022 ,044 According to the t-test in Table 3, as for the fact that sig. value was greater than ,050 in all factors, it was seen when the value of the first significance level for this factor was considered that the value was lower than ,050 in the need to understand customer needs sub-dimension only according to whether they chose the profession willingly variable. According to this, the hypothesis of “there is a significant difference between the students’ need to understand customer needs according to whether they chose the profession willingly” (H1) was accepted. There was no significant difference among the dimensions of the students' service orientations, whether they chose the profession willingly, the need to serve successfully and the need to make them feel special sub-dimensions according to their gender. For these, H0 hypothesis was accepted.. Table 3.1. The Difference Status of the Need to Understand Customer Needs According to Whether They Chose the Profession Willingly N Mean The UnderstandNeeds Need to Customer Yes 225 96 3,66 No 185 09 3,50 The Impact of Tourism Students’ Personalities on Their Service Orientations When Table 3.1. was analyzed, it could be noticed that the students who loved the profession had higher scores of the need to understand customer needs when compared to the ones who did not love the profession. 6.4. The Status of Service Orientation According to Gender, Class, Department and Achievement Whether there was a significant difference between the students’ service orientations according to their age, class, department and achievement was analyzed by ANOVA. H0: There is no significant difference between the students’ service orientations according to their age, class, department and achievement. H1: There is a significant difference between the students’ service orientations according to their age, class, department and achievement. Table 4. The Status of Service Orientation According to Gender, Class, Department and Achievement GENDER CLASS DEPARTMENT T ACHIEVEMEN F . Sig F . Sig F Sig . F Sig. The Need to Serve Successfull 6 ,19 0 ,94 2 1,82 3 ,14 ,628 ,64 3 0 ,30 ,741 y The Need to Make Them Feel 6 ,77 2 ,54 6 1,09 1 ,35 5 1,74 ,13 9 8 ,41 ,659 Special The Need to Understan d 9 ,36 1 ,83 ,675 8 ,56 ,549 ,70 0 6 ,08 ,918 Customer Needs There was no significant difference between the students’ service orientations according to their age, class, department and achievement (p>,005). 6.5. The Impact of Personality on Service Orientation In Table 5, the correlation table between the sub-dimensions of personality and those of service orientation was presented. Table 5. Correlation Table for Personality Sub-dimensions and Service Orientation Sub-dimensions Extroversion Introversion The Need to Serve Successfully ,077 -,056 The Need to Make Them Feel Special -,011 -,127** The Need to Understand Customer Needs -,034 -,130** Tugrul Ayyildiz, Ahu Yazici Ayyildiz, Huseyin Erhan Altun According to Table 5, there was a low level negative relationship between extroversion and the need to serve successfully, the need to make them feel special, and the need to understand customer needs sub-dimensions. Table 6: Regression Analyses between Personality and Service Orientation Independent Variable Dependent Variable Beta t R2 F p Extroversion The Need to ,097 2,158 ,120 2,993 ,051 - - Introversion Serve Successfully ,075 1,875 Extroversion The Need to ,037 ,802 ,018 3,749 ,024 Introversion Make Them Feel Special -,112 -,143 Extroversion The Need to ,017 ,326 ,017 3,602 ,028 Introversion Understand Customer Needs -,121 -,136 As seen in Table 6, the model between personality sub-dimensions and the need to serve successfully sub-dimension of service orientation was found to be insignificant. Nonetheless, the models between personality sub-dimensions and the need to make them feel special and the need to understand customer needs sub-dimensions of service orientation were found to be significant (p<,05). However, for both dimensions, personality sub-dimensions explained the need to make them feel special, and the need to understand customer needs sub-dimensions of service orientation at a very low level (,018 and ,017). When Beta values were examined, it was found that while introversion sub-dimension of personality negatively affected the need to make them feel special, and the need to understand customer needs sub-dimensions of service orientation, extroversion sub-dimension of personality positively affected the need to make them feel special, and the need to understand customer needs sub-dimensions of service orientation. 7. Conclusion and Discussion There is a strong relationship between personality and service orientation. For most scientists, service orientation is accepted to be one of the components of personality traits or a dimension of personality. Depending on the personality traits of the individuals, some individuals tend to be more likely to serve when compared to others. Service orientations of the individuals make them serve the customers better by better communicating with them. According to many scholars, the personalities of the individuals can positively affect service quality, customer satisfaction, service behaviors, service skills and the performance of the service provider (Kuşluvan & Eren, 2011). In this study, it was aimed to reveal the impact of tourism students’ personalities on their service orientations. Tourism students are an important potential for tourism. For this reason, tourism students that are important for tourism, personality and service orientation were brought together in this study. In the study, factor analysis was applied to personality scale and service orientation scale. As a result of this factor analysis, both the personality scale and the service orientation scale differed from the original version. The original personality scale consisted 5 dimensions and the original service orientation scale consisted 4 dimensions. However, in the factor analysis, personality scale was found to be 2 dimensions and service orientation scale was found to be 3 dimensions. This may be due to the translation of the questionnaires into Turkish language, as well as the fact that the original scale was applied to different people. The fact that tourism students' situations were different and that the scale was applied in different regions could also cause the factors to differ. The t-test and ANOVA were performed in order to determine if there were any differences between tourism students’ service orientations according to some of their characteristics. As a result of these analyzes, it was revealed that there was a significant difference only between the students’ need to understand customer needs according to whether they chose the profession willingly. It was The Impact of Tourism Students’ Personalities on Their Service Orientations determined as a result of the analysis that those who loved their profession had higher levels of the need to understand customer needs when compared to those who did not love the profession. This is a natural consequence for the students as they are in the tourism industry. The fact that the students choose the profession and perform willingly may let them give more value to the customer. The model between the sub-dimensions of personality and the need to serve successfully sub- dimension of service orientation was found to be insignificant. Nevertheless, the models between the sub-dimensions of personality and the need to make them feel special and the need to understand customer needs sub-dimensions of service orientation were found to be significant. Whether the individual is introvert or extrovert in terms of serving successfully may not have made any difference. Regardless of personality, every individual may have the desire to serve successfully and be successful. This study was carried out on the students at Adnan Menderes University Faculty of Tourism. In the future researches, this content can be expanded. Conducting such a study on tourism employees will also contribute to the managers of tourism enterprises. 8. References Aslan, S. (2008). Kişilik, huy ve psikopatoloji. Rewiews, Cases and Hypotheses in Psychiatry, 2(1-2), 7-18. Barrick, M. R., & Mount, M. K. (1991). The big five personality dimensions and job performance: A meta-analysis. Personnel Psychology, 44, 1-26. Bastem K. (2017). 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(Report number 93-108) Cambridge, MA: Marketing Science Institute. Teng, C. C., & Barrows, C. W. (2009). Service orientation: Antecedents, outcomes, and ımplications for hospitality research and practice. The Service Industries Journal, 29(10), 1413-1435. Yelboğa, A. (2006). Kişilik özellikleri ve iş performansı arasındaki ilişkinin incelenmesi. “İş,Güç” Endüstri İlişkileri ve İnsan Kaynakları Dergisi, 8(2), 196-211. The Effects of Organizational Climate on the Employee Performance: The Mediating Role of Employees’ Creativity* Bengu Hirlak, Gamze Ebru ciftci, Orhan Balikci 1. Introduction Businesses are required to create a working environment and organizational climate that shall allow both the development and implementation of creativity, support the creative skills of their employees to ensure sustainable competition (Bakan and Büyükbeşe, 2013, p. 29). Individuals shall be able to be satisfied with their jobs and perform well in a working environment and an organizational climate where they can express their original and creative thoughts freely, determine their own methods to reach their goals, have access to the resources they require, think their work is meaningful and important, and where they can realize themselves (Çekmecelioğlu , 2007, p. 80). This study aims to examine the validity of this hypothesis by assuming that an organizational climate that supports individual creativity shall also affect the performance levels of employees with this study that is also driven by the importance of the subject. The organizational climate, which is the first variable of this work, is a very broad concept and indicates how employees perceive the objective qualities of the organization, the events and various factors in the working environment (İşcan and Karabey, 2007, p. 182). Performance, which is the second variable of this work, may be defined as the level of achievement of the goal of a planned activity; and it may be expressed as the amount of output produced at a certain period time for the businesses, while it may be expressed as the level of efficiency and effectiveness displayed at the point of realizing the goals and objectives for the individuals (Tutar and Altınöz, 2010, p. 201). And the creativity, which is the third variable of this work, is described as the production of new and useful thinking in any field (Şengül and Eriş, 2010; cited by: Kaya, 2015, p. 125). 2. Method The purpose of this work is to determine the mediating role of creativity while assessing the effects of the perceptions of the employees about the organizational climate on their performance. The theoretical model of this study is given in Figure 1. Figure 1. Theoretical Model of the Study *This study was presented as oral presentation between May 10th and 12th, organized in Prizren Province of Kosovo at XVI. European Conference on Social and Behavioral Sciences As the organizational climate is the perception of the employees about the psychological environment of the organization, the fact that these perceptions are positive have a very important Bengu Hirlak, Gamze Ebru ciftci, Orhan Balikci position in their efficiency, effectiveness and motivations for success. Therefore, it may assumed that there is a relationship between the perceptions of employees about the organizational climate and their performance (Tutar and Altınöz, 2010, p. 196-205). As a result of many studies conducted, it has been determined that there is a relationship between the perception about the organizational climate and the performance of the employees (e.g., Demirdken, 2017). Based on this information, the following hypothesis has been established: H1: Dimensions of organizational climate affect employee performances. H1a: The support dimension of organizational climate affects employee performances. H1b: The impartiality dimension of organizational climate affects employee performances. H1c: The cohesion dimension of organizational climate affects employee performances. H1d: The intrinsic recognition dimension of organizational climate affects employee performances. H1e: The pressure dimension of organizational climate affects employee performances. Employees may develop their creative skills and potentials in a tolerant organizational climate that promotes the introduction of new ideas and development of new production methods only. Thus, managers shall create an organizational climate that shall enable the introduction of new ideas (Şimşek et al. 2014, p. 303-305). As a result of many researches conducted, it has been determined that there is a relationship between the perception about the organizational climate and the creativity of the employees (e.g., Awwad and Ali, 2012). Based on this information, the following hypotheses have been established: H2: Dimensions of organizational climate affect the creativity of the employees. H2a: The support dimension of organizational climate affects the creativity of the employees. H2b: The impartiality dimension of organizational climate affects the creativity of the employees. H2c: The cohesion dimension of organizational climate affects the creativity of the employees. H2d: The intrinsic recognition dimension of organizational climate affects the creativity of the employees. H2e: The pressure dimension of organizational climate affects the creativity of the employees. And also as a result of many studies conducted, it has been determined that there is a relationship between the creativity of the employees and their performances (e.g., Soori and Feresat, 2016). Based on this information, the following hypothesis has been established: H3: The creativity of the employees affects the performance. It was considered that organizational climate has an effect on the performance of employees and this effect may be reflected in output variables through various variables. From this point of view, it is considered that the creativity of the employees may play a mediating role on the effect of the organizational climate on the performance of the employees. In the literature, it could not be found any research that examines the mediating role of creativity of the employees on the effect of the organizational climate on the performance of the employees. Thus, the following hypotheses have been established to investigate the mediating role of creativity of the employees on the effect of the organizational climate on the performance of the employees H4: The creativity of the employees has a mediating role on the effect of the dimensions of the organizational climate on the performance of the employees. H4a: The creativity of the employees has a mediating role on the effect of the support dimension of the organizational climate on the performance of the employees. H4b: The creativity of the employees has a mediating role on the effect of the impartiality dimension of the organizational climate on the performance of the employees. H4c: The creativity of the employees has a mediating role on the effect of the cohesion dimension of the organizational climate on the performance of the employees. H4d: The creativity of the employees has a mediating role on the effect of the intrinsic recognition dimension of the organizational climate on the performance of the employees. H4e: The creativity of the employees has a mediating role on the effect of the pressure dimension of the organizational climate on the performance of the employees. This study is important for the determination of the conditions where an organizational climate that may affect creativity and performance of the employees positively may be established. This study The Effects of Organizational Climate on the Employee Performance was carried out in a call centre in the province of Kırıkkale. The population for this research consists of a total of 150 persons working at a call centre in Kırıkkale. Surveys were handed out to all of the employees and 10 surveys were removed from the study as they were filled with missing information. 140 surveys were included in the study. It may be argued that the study may not be generalized as it was carried out in a province and in an institution only. Survey method was used as the data collection method in the study. The demographic characteristics of the employees were questioned in the first section of the survey; the second section included expressions measuring the organizational climate; the third section included expressions that measure the creativity of the employees; and the fourth section included expressions that measure the performance of the employees. Scales, of which their reliability was proven in the literature, were used to measure the three variables covered in the survey within the context of the study. The scale, consisting of 5 dimensions (support, impartiality, pressure, cohesion, intrinsic recognition) and 15 expressions, established by Montes et al. (2004, p. 175) based on the scale created by Koys and Decotis (1991) by the arrangement of this scale was used to measure the perception of the organizational climate. The expressions in the scale for the organizational climate were arranged as the 5-level Likert scale (1-Strongly disagree, 2-Disagree, 3-Neither agree nor disagree, 4-Agree, 5-Strongly agree). The scale, consisting of four expressions and one dimension, used by Kirkman and Rosen (1999) and then by Sigler and Pearson (2000), and taken from Ç (2008) was used to measure the performance of the employees. The scale, consisting of one dimension and 11 expressions, established by Muoz-Doyague et al. (2008, p. 33) adapting the works of Ettlie and O’Keefe (1982), Scott and Bruce (1994), Oldham and Cummings (1996), Zhou and George (2001) was used to measure the perception of the creativity of the employees. The expressions in the scale for the performance and creativity of the employees were arranged as the 5-level Likert scale (1-Strongly disagree, 2-Disagree, 3-Neither agree nor disagree, 4-Agree, 5-Strongly agree).The results obtained from the survey were analysed using the SPSS 18.0 software. A correlation analysis was conducted to determine the descriptive statistics that reveal the characteristics of the sample, and the strength and direction of the relationships between the variables of the study. Whether the data are distributed normally was inspected by he Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, and parametric analysis methods were used as normal distribution of the data was confirmed as a result of this inspection. Hierarchical regression was used to examine the mediating role. 3. Findings Findings achieved as a result of the analysis of the data obtained by the survey method were classified and the following data were obtained. Table 1. Results of the analysis of confirmatory factors and reliability for the scale of organizational climate, employee and creativity Variables Minimum Factor Load Maximu m Factor Load Cronbac h’s Alpha Explained Variance Total Explained Variance Support 0.636 0.632 0.687 34.066 70.612 Cohesion 0.716 0.673 0.785 46.769 Intrinsic Recognition 0.490 0.412 0.837 55.411 Impartiality 0.458 0.445 0.786 63.647 Pressure 0.791 0.652 0.769 70.612 Organizational Climate 0,826 Employee Performance 0.677 0.855 0.785 61.556 61.556 Employee Creativity 0.676 0.765 0.912 53.664 53.664 Bengu Hirlak, Gamze Ebru ciftci, Orhan Balikci As a result of the confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), it was determined that support has a factor load of 0.636-0.632; compatibility has a factor load of 0.716-0.673; intrinsic recognition has a factor load of 0.490-0.412; cohesion has a factor load of 0.458-0.445 and pressure has a factor load of 0.791 0.652 as the sub-dimensions of the organizational climate. The five sub-dimensions of organizational climate explain70.612% of the total variance. (KMO: 0.784; Chi-Square: 860.190; Sd: 105; p: 0.000). Moreover, sub-dimensions of organizational climate scale are determined to have the following Cronbach’s Alpha Coefficients respectively. It was observed that the employee performance scale has a factor load between 0.677 and 0.855. This scale explains 61.556% of the total variance (KMO: 0.711; Chi-Square: 179.330; Sd: 6; p: 0.000). Also, Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient of the scale was calculated as 0.785. It was observed that the employee creativity scale has a factor load between 0.676 and 0.765. This scale was found to explain 53.664% of the total variance (KMO: 0.903; Chi-Square: 808.202; Sd: 55; p: 0.000). Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient of the scale is 0.912 (Table 1). The fact that Cronbach’s Alpha coefficients are between “0.80 and 1.00” indicates that “the scale is highly reliable”; and the fact that it is between “0.60 and 0.80” indicates that “the scale is reliable” (Kalaycı, 2009, p. 405). As a result of the CFA and reliability analyses performed, it may be assumed that the scales of organizational climate, employee performance and creativity have adequate levels of validity and reliability. Distribution of frequencies and percentages for the demographical characteristics of 140 employees participated in the survey are given in Table 2. Table 2. Descriptive statistics about the demographical characteristics of the participants Demogra phical Characteristic N % Demographical Characteristics N % s Sex Marital status 66. Male 93 66.4 Married 93 4 Female 47 33.6 Bachelor 47 33. 6 Total 140 100 Total 140 100 Age Underyears 21 to years 26 to years 31 to years 20 25 30 35 67 45 27 1 47.9 32.1 19.3 0.7 Educational Background Primary Education High School Associate Degree Bachelor's Degree 1 51 53 35 4 9 0 0.7 36. 37. 25. Total 140 100 Total 140 100 N= Number of Participants As per Table 2, 66.4% of the participants (93 persons) are male and 33.6% of the participants (47 persons) are female. It was observed that %66.4 of the participants (93 persons) are married, and the rest (33.6% -47 persons) are bachelors and a majority of the participants (47.9% -67 persons) are under 20 years of age. It also observed that a majority of the participants either have associate degrees (37.9% -53 persons) or are high school graduates (36.4% -51 persons). Table 3 provides the results of the correlation analysis in order to determine the relations between the variables of the study. The Effects of Organizational Climate on the Employee Performance Table 3. Results of the correlation analysis Varia bles vg. A . D. S 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Suppo rt (1) .73 3 .08 1 1 Impar tiality (2) .38 3 .20 1 0.4 87 * 1 Pressu re (3) .44 3 .17 1 0.1 83 * 0.2 09 * 1 Cohes ion (4) .91 3 .87 0 0.4 66 * 0.4 82 * 0.2 44 * 1 Intrin sic Recognitio n (5) .92 3 .13 1 0.4 43 * 0.4 37 * 0.2 22 * 0.4 99 * 1 Emplo yee Creativity (6) .66 3 .80 0 0.2 39 * 0.3 07 * 0.2 61 * 0.2 38 * 0.3 01 * 1 Emplo yee Performan .30 4 .68 0 84 0.0 68 0.0 0.1 68 * 0.2 86 * 0.2 13 * 0.4 85 * 1 ce (7) Avg. = Average; S. D. = Standard Deviation; * Correlation is relevant at a level of 0.01 (bidirectional) According to the results of the correlation analysis in Table 3, a weak significant relation in the positive direction (0.000.05). Support has no significant effect on the employee performance (B= 0.084; Corrected R2= 0.000). No mediating role was found on the relationship of the employee creativity with the support and the employee performance as the second condition was not met (Table 4). Table 5. Mediating role of the employee creativity on the relationship between the cohesion (a sub-dimension of the organizational climate) and the employee performance Results of the First Step of the Regression Analysis (Model 1) Mediating Variable: Employee Creativity Independent Beta t p Variable Cohesion 0.238 2.882 0.005 * R2=0.057; Corrected R2=0.050 F=6.557 p<0.05 Results of the Second Step of the Regression Analysis (Model 2) Dependent Variable: Employee Performance The Effect of the Employee on the Employee Performance Creativity Independent B t p Variable eta Beta t p Cohesion 0. 3 0.0 286 .502 01 * R2=0.082; Corrected R2=0.075 F=12.262 p<0.05 0.485 6. 510 R2=0.235; CorrectedF=42.386;p<0.05 0.0 00 * R2=0.229 Results of the Third Step of the Regression Analysis (Model 3) Dependent Variable: Employee Performance Independent Beta t p Variables The Effects of Organizational Climate on the Employee Performance Cohesion 0.180 2.393 0.018 * Employee Creativity 0.444 5.860 0.000 * R2=0.266; Corrected R2=0.255 F=24.708 p<0.05 *p<0.05 Model 1 regression analysis was conducted to determine the mediating role of the employee creativity on the relationship between the cohesion (a sub-dimension of the organizational climate) and the employee performance. As a result of the analysis, the effect of cohesion dimension on the employee creativity, which is a mediating role, was found to be significant (p<0.05). Cohesion dimension explains 5% of the employee creativity (B=0.238; Corrected R2=0.050). After performing the first stage, it has been moved to Model 2 regression analysis related with the determination of mediating role in the second condition. The effect of cohesion dimension on the employee performance was also found to be significant (p<0.05). Cohesion sub-dimension explains 7.5% of the employee performance (B=0.286; Corrected R2=0.075). The effect of employee creativity on the employee performance was also found to be significant (p<0.05). Employee creativity explains 22.9% of the employee performance (B=0.485; Corrected R2=0.229). Thus, second condition is met, and it has been continued analyses for the third condition. As per the Model 3 regression analysis performed, the variable of employee creativity was added to the relation of cohesion dimension and the employee performance and the effect of cohesion dimension and employee creativity together on the employee performance was observed. As seen in Model 3, the effect of cohesion dimension on the employee performance was reduced when the employee creativity was added to the model (B=0.180; Corrected R2=0.255). Thus, the third condition was met, and it was determined that the employee creativity has a partial mediating role on the relationship between the cohesion (a sub-dimension of the organizational climate) and the employee performance (Table 5). Table 6. Mediating role of the employee creativity on the relationship between the intrinsic recognition (a sub-dimension of the organizational climate) and the employee performance Results of the First Step of the Regression Analysis (Model 1) Mediating Variable: Employee Creativity Independent Variable Beta t p Intrinsic Recognition 0.301 3.707 0.000 * R2=0.091; Corrected R2=0.084 F=13.742 p<0.05 Results of the Second Step of the Regression Analysis (Model 2) Dependent Variable: Employee Performance Independent Variable Beta t p Intrinsic Recognition 0.213 2.561 0.012 * R2=0.045; Corrected R2=0.038 F=6.557 p<0.05 Results of the Third Step of the Regression Analysis (Model 3) Dependent Variable: Employee Performance Independent Variables Beta t p Intrinsic Recognition 0.074 0.945 0.343 Employee Creativity 0.463 0.463 0.000 * R2=0.240; Corrected R2=0.229 F=21.623 p<0.05 *p<0.05 Model 1 regression analysis was conducted to determine the mediating role of the employee creativity on the relationship between the intrinsic recognition (a sub-dimension of the organizational climate) and the employee performance. As a result of the analysis, the effect of intrinsic recognition dimension on the employee creativity, which is a mediating role, was found to be significant (p<0.05). Intrinsic recognition dimension explains 8.4% of the employee creativity (B=0.301; Corrected R2=0.084). After performing the first stage, it has been moved to Model 2 regression analysis related Bengu Hirlak, Gamze Ebru ciftci, Orhan Balikci with the mediating role. The effect of intrinsic recognition dimension on the employee performance was also found to be significant (p<0.05). Intrinsic recognition sub-dimension explains 3.8% of the employee performance (B=0.213; Corrected R2=0.038). Thus, second condition is met, and it has been continued analyses for the third condition. As per the Model 3 regression analysis performed, the variable of employee creativity was added to the relation of intrinsic recognition dimension and the employee performance and the effect of intrinsic recognition dimension and employee creativity together on the employee performance was observed. As seen in Model 3, the effect of intrinsic recognition dimension on the employee performance has become insignificant when the employee creativity was added to the model (B=0.074; Corrected R2=0.229). Thus, the third condition was met, and it was determined that the employee creativity has a full mediating role on the relationship between the intrinsic recognition (a sub-dimension of the organizational climate) and the employee performance (Table 6). Table 7. Mediating role of the employee creativity on the relationship between the impartiality (a sub-dimension of the organizational climate) and the employee performance Results of the First Step of the Regression Analysis (Model 1) Mediating Variable: Employee Creativity Independent Beta t p Variable Impartiality 0.307 3.788 0.000 * R2=0.094; Corrected R2=0.088 F=14.341 p<0.05 Results of the Second Step of the Regression Analysis (Model 2) Dependent Variable: Employee Performance Independent Beta t p Variable Impartiality 0.068 0.798 0.426 R2=0.005; Corrected R2= -0.003 F=0.636 p>0.05 *p<0.05 Model 1 regression analysis was conducted to determine the mediating role of the employee creativity on the relationship between the impartiality (a sub-dimension of the organizational climate) and the employee performance. As a result of the analysis, the effect of impartiality dimension on the employee creativity, which is a mediating role, was found to be significant (p<0.05) and it was determined that impartiality dimension explains 8.8% of the employee creativity (B=0.307; Corrected R2=0.088). After performing the first stage, it has been moved to Model 2 regression analysis related with the mediating role in the second condition, but it has been found that the second condition could not be met (p>0.05). It was found that the impartiality dimension has no significant effect on the employee performance (B= 0.068; Corrected R2= -0.003). No mediating role was found on the relationship of the employee creativity with the impartiality and the employee performance as the second condition was not met (Table 7). The Effects of Organizational Climate on the Employee Performance Table 8. Mediating role of the employee creativity on the relationship between the pressure (a sub-dimension of the organizational climate) and the employee performance Results of the First Step of the Regression Analysis (Model 1) Mediating Variable: Employee Creativity Independent Beta t p Variable Pressure 0.261 3.180 0.002 * R2=0.068; Corrected R2=0.062 F=10.115 p<0.05 Results of the Second Step of the Regression Analysis (Model 2) Dependent Variable: Employee Performance Independent Beta t p Variable Pressure 0.168 2.004 0.047 R2=0.028; Corrected R2=0.021 F=4.015 p<0.05 Results of the Third Step of the Regression Analysis (Model 3) Dependent Variable: Employee Performance Independent Beta t p Variables Pressure 0.045 0.576 0.566 Employee Creativity 0.473 6.119 0.000 * R2=0.236; Corrected R2=0.226 F=21.256 p<0.05 *p<0.05 Model 1 regression analysis was conducted to determine the mediating role of the employee creativity on the relationship between the pressure (a sub-dimension of the organizational climate) and the employee performance. As a result of the analysis, the effect of pressure dimension on the employee creativity, which is a mediating role, was found to be significant (p<0.05). Pressure dimension explains 6.2% of the employee creativity (B=0.261; Corrected R2=0.062). After performing the first stage, it has been moved to Model 2 regression analysis related with the mediating role. The effect of pressure dimension on the employee performance was also found to be significant (p<0.05). Pressure sub-dimension explains 2.1% of the employee performance (B=0.168; Corrected R2=0.021). Thus, second condition is met, and it has been continued analyses for the third condition. As per the Model 3 regression analysis performed, the variable of employee creativity was added to the relation of pressure dimension and the employee performance and the effect of pressure dimension and employee creativity together on the employee performance was observed. As seen in Model 3, the effect of pressure dimension on the employee performance has become insignificant when the employee creativity was added to the model (B=0.045; Corrected R2=0.226). Thus, the third condition was met, and it was determined that the employee creativity has a full mediating role on the relationship between the pressure (a sub-dimension of the organizational climate) and the employee performance (Table 8). As a conclusion; H1 (H1a, H1b rejected; H1c, H1d, H1e accepted) and H4 (H4a, H4b rejected; H4c, H4d, H4e accepted) hypotheses were partially accepted, and H2 (H2a, H2b, H2c, H2d, H2e accepted) and H3 hypotheses were accepted. 4. Conclusion The organizational climate is the emotions and thoughts of the employees when they sense the atmosphere in the organization. These emotions and thoughts have different impressions on the employee. They may increase the commitment of the employee to the organization, improve their motivation or performance or otherwise affect their performance negatively (Deniz and Çoban, 2016, p.50-51). Organizational climate shall be designed to maximize employee performance and creativity both physically and psychologically. In addition to the physical working conditions in the business environment, management and leadership styles shall also have the qualities to provide employee satisfaction. (Tutar and Altınöz, 2010, p. 197). In this study, the effects of organizational climate and employee creativity on employee performance were investigated. Also, the mediating role of the Bengu Hirlak, Gamze Ebru ciftci, Orhan Balikci employee creativity on the relationship of the organizational climate and the employee performance were examined. Data for the study were collected with the survey method, and the sample population of the study was established by 140 employees employed in a call center in the Kırıkkale province. The results obtained were analysed using the SPSS 18.0 software pack. As a result of the study, it was determined that the sub-dimensions of organizational climate (support, cohesion, intrinsic recognition, impartiality and pressure) have a positive and significant effect on the employee creativity; and the cohesion, pressure, intrinsic recognition and employee creativity have a positive and significant effect on the employee performance. It was also determined that the employee creativity has a full mediating role on the effect of the intrinsic recognition and pressure sub-dimensions of organizational climate on the employee performance, and it has a partial mediating role on effect of the cohesion sub-dimension of organizational climate on the employee performance. 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Davranış bilimlerine giriş ve örgütlerde davranış, Eğitim Yayınevi, 8. Yenilenmiş Baskı, Konya. Tutar, H. & Altınöz, M. (2010). Örgütsel iklimin işgören performansı üzerine etkisi: Ostim imalat işletmeleri çalışanları üzerine bir araştırma, Ankara Üniversitesi SBF Dergisi, 65 (2), 195-218. Zhou, J. & George, J. M. (2001). When job dissatisfaction leads to creativity: Encouraging the expression of voice, Academy of Management Journal, 44, 682-697. Public Framework Contracts in Kosovo, some study aspects Azem Duraku 1. Introduction According to the Law on Public Procurement, a public framework contract means an agreement for a limited period between one or more contracting authorities and one or more economic operators, the purpose of which is to establish the terms governing contracts to be awarded during a given period, in particular with regard to the price and, where appropriate, the quantity envisaged. There are two types of public framework contracts: (1) Those which define all terms of the contract and usually relate to an economic operator; and (2) those which do not define all terms of the contract and consequently need further competition to establish the terms of the contract, as they also relate to some economic operators. The scope of public framework contracts may include works, supplies and services. Great Britain and Denmark have introduced the idea of using framework contracts under the public procurement rules established during 1970-1980. The general idea was partly to save resources by having a contract covering the needs of the Contacting Authority over a period of time, and partly to enable Contracting Authorities to use the public framework contract. Kosovo has begun to apply framework contracts after 2010. A good system of planning, preparation and evaluation of a public framework contract by the Contracting Authorities in Kosovo will affect the elimination of negative phenomena of mismanagement and future recommendations for management and exploitation of public money while being economic, efficient, and fair. The application of agreements, framework contracts in Kosovo with legal regulation, has begun to apply from May 2010. The contracting authorities have begun to use the framework contracts during 2011. Currently, almost all contracting authorities are using these types of contracts, with the following contracting authorities such as Central Procurement Agency, Kosovo Energy Corporation J.S.C., Post and Telecommunication of Kosovo J.S.C. being amongst the institutions which use such contracts the most. The value of these contracts is considerable and it is more difficult to be determined since these contracts are usually signed at a price per unit, but we can conclude that their value is high as we are mainly dealing with supplies and services that amount to a significant sum in procurements conducted in Kosovo. The selection of the public framework contract should be made by assessing the need for changing the terms including prices throughout the agreement period, which may be up to three years. If the prices are very stable and the public framework contract is concluded at the time when the level of competition is considered high, there is no need for reopening of the competition. High prices at the time of concluding public framework contracts represent the need for mini-tenders. The use of negotiated procedures is intended to be reduced as much as possible via the use of framework agreements and contracts, use of public framework agreements when the amount or exact value of the activities cannot be determined and respecting the principle of transparency and value for money regarding the supply, service or work required. 2.Methodology The study was carried out based on previous studies in the field of public procurement that especially analyze issues in this field as well as the regulation applicable for governing this field. In line with the objective of the paper, a detailed analysis in the field of framework contracts in our country was carried out based on the available data. The literature used is related to Framework Contracts in Kosovo and we have tried, at all times, to use the literature of neighbouring countries that have characteristics which are similar with Kosovo. During this research, I have used the method of deduction as well as methods of comparative analysis. Azem Duraku During this research, I have used records and publications from the official websites of CPA, PPRC, Ministry of Finance, Kosovo Agency of Statistics and other relevant institutions. The model for the assessment of a public framework contract is in accordance with the contract award criteria that may be either the lowest price or the most economically advantageous tender. In the case of public framework contracts, where the indicative quantities are unknown and in the case of contracts with unit prices, the Contracting Authority shall determine the weighting based on the importance of each “category of services” or each “item” in order for the Contracting Authority to determine which bid has the lowest price. At this point, we will focus more on demonstrating concrete cases to be considered in the future during the assessment of public framework contracts with unit prices by choosing the lowest bid with scoring points set out in advance in the tender dossier. 3. Public framework contracts in Kosovo Public framework contract means an agreement for a limited period between one or more contracting authorities and one or more economic operators, the purpose of which is to establish the terms governing contracts to be awarded during a given period, in particular with regard to price and, where appropriate, the quantity envisaged. There are two types of public framework contracts: • Traditional public framework contracts with a supplier where, except the quantity, all other conditions are stated in the contract, and, • A new type of public framework contracts with a number of Suppliers who did not conclude all the conditions of shipments, where the Contracting Authority may reopen the competition by requiring the prices and other undefined conditions for a particular shipment, inviting the suppliers to offer prices in a mini-tender. Selection of public framework contract type shall be made by assessing the needs for changing the terms, including prices throughout the agreement period, which may be up to three years. In case of very stable prices and the public framework contract being concluded at the time when the level of competition is considered high, there is no need for reopening of the competition. High prices at the time when public framework contract is concluded represent the need of mini-tenders. The duration of public framework contracts may also affect the selection of the type. The need for a public framework contract that allows price correction is higher, the longer the contract term is. According to Law on Public Procurement, no public framework contract shall have duration of more than 36 months and it shall not be extendable or renewable. Whereas, based on European Directives, the duration of public framework contracts may be up to four years. Why should public framework contracts be used? Usually, public framework contracts are used because Contracting Authorities understand that the terms for a particular contract may be better if the required quantities are higher as a result of covering more than one contract, because the framework contract covers the needs for a period of up to three years. It is also considered as a benefit if more contracting authorities join forces and conclude a mutual agreement; because it is more efficient to have a contracting authority with special expertise (CPA) regarding the type of supplies or specific services concluding agreements on behalf of all involved Contracting Authorities. Over a certain period, it will be possible for the Contracting Authority to develop qualifications for certain types of goods or services and use the qualifications of others in other fields, meaning where it lacks expertise. The last reason for using public framework contracts of any kind is that it reduces the need for resources, because tendering for requested goods and services, over a certain period, is done only once, especially due to the complicated rules and procedures of EU directives and LPP. The use of public framework contracts also allows for the management of procurement in a shorter period as it is not necessary to publish the contract notices and wait for bidding for a longer period – deadlines are not required to be long neither in cases of reopening the competition. Right at the beginning of the procedure, it is important to determine the total amount of goods and services – or works that are expected to be delivered during the contract period. The amounts can be foreseen based on how much has been spent last year and regulated according to the known Public Framework Contracts in Kosovo, some study aspects variations. The foreseen values should be mentioned in the Contract Notice in order for economic operators to be notified regarding the size of the contract for the purpose of pooling only the bidders able to meet the obligations and providing the best price due to contract value. In Kosovo, when determining the value of the public framework contract, the normal methods of determining the contract value should be applied. However, it should be clearly noted in the tender dossier that the values are not foreseen and it will not be guaranteed that the current requests will be changed, increased or decreased. This is important in cases when the public framework contract has more than one economic operator since it will be impossible to foresee which supplier will be selected. Public framework contracts are closed systems, which implies that no new Contracting Authority or Economic Operator can use the framework as long as the public framework contract lasts. Whenever used by the Contracting Authority, the public framework contract shall be explicitly identified in the Contract Notice, either by directly naming them in the contract notice or by reference to other documents. The Contracting Authority should assess whether the public framework contract is the best approach for the relevant procurement. This will include judgments for extracting the value of money given the nature of the procurement as well as the ability to specify procurement with sufficient precision at the outset. The Public Procurement Framework in Kosovo defines the manner of implementation of the public framework contract as a means of a procurement procedure under Article 38 of the LPP, the Operational Guidelines on Procurement (OGP), and clarifies the manner of implementation in the two Administrative Instructions issued by the PPRC, as follows: • AI No. 2/2015, for the period, value and quantity of the framework contract, and • AI No. 3/2015, for the implementation of the criterion "responsive tender with the lowest price", in the public framework contracts with prices per unit or in case of multiple service providers. In the case of central procurement activities, such as public framework contract developed by the Central Procurement Agency on behalf of other Contracting Authorities, the use of such central contracts is indispensable for the Contracting Authorities. The contracting authority may not use public framework contracts in such a way as to prevent, restrict or confuse the competition. Procurement procedures for Public Framework Contracts (a) In cases where the contracting authority plans to award a framework contract, it must use one of the following: (b) Open procedure; (c) Restricted procedure; (d) Competitive negotiated procedure: (e) Negotiated procedure without prior publication of a contract notice Only goods included in the public framework contract may be ordered. The framework agreement may only be used by the Contracting Authority which tenders the public framework contract and those contracting authorities subject to the agreement may use that framework agreement. Model for assessing a public framework contract Criteria for contract award may be either the lowest price or the most economically advantageous tender. If the contracting authority has specified that the public contract will be awarded to the economic operator that has submitted the most economically advantageous tender, the concerned contracting authority shall specify the criteria to be taken into account when determining the winner in the contract notice and in the tender dossier and the importance given to each criterion. If the criterion is the lowest price, the contract must always be awarded for the lowest price tender in accordance with the specified requirements. In the case of the most economically advantageous tender criterion, it is obligatory to convert any element of the award criterion and then weigh it on the basis of the formula and weights set out in the Contract Notice and Tender Dossier. Azem Duraku In the case of public framework contracts, where indicative quantities are unknown, the contracts with price per unit, the CA should determine the weight based on the importance of each "service category" or each "item" in order for the Contracting Authority to determine which lowest price bid is. In such cases, the Contracting Authority shall evaluate the frequency and importance of each item or the frequency and importance of each category of services and shall weigh the price on the basis of importance. These weights will only be used for the purpose of articulating the importance of each service or item and to be able to choose the lowest price bid. 1. In the case of the lowest price, by weighing the prices, the weighted prices are based on the price offered by the individual Economic Operators, so it is not permissible to determine the points by comparing the prices of the various bidders. 2. The only function of price weighing is to determine the contract with the lowest price, but the payment is always made based on the bid price. 3. It is strictly forbidden to compare the prices of the different bids with each other and to convert the calculated values into points, then to weigh the points, since in this way the highest points scored will not necessarily result in the lowest price. 4. The Contracting Authority shall specify in the Tender Dossier the weight (importance) of the prices of the specific categories and shall articulate the importance in the total % which shall be 100%. As an example of good activities that can be applied in the frame contracts is the subject of the contract: Maintenance of vehicles with a criterion for contract award: "Lowest price". Table 1: Maintenance of vehicles with a criterion for contract award: “Lowest price” Categories Weight based on importan ce Weight ed price Company A Company B Company C Price Weight ed price Price Weight ed price Price Weight ed price 1 Price for regular services 60 % Price x 60% € 100,0 0 € 60,00 € 80,00 € 48,00 € 110,00 € 66,00 2 Price for maintenan ce and spare parts 20 % Price x 20% € 100,0 0 € 20,00 € 80,00 € 16,00 € 50,00 € 10,00 3 Price for repairs and colouring 5 % Price x 5% € 120,0 0 € 6,00 € 200,00 € 10,00 € 70,00 € 3,50 4 Price for chassis parts 15 % Price x 15% € 100,0 0 € 15,00 € 150,00 € 22,50 € 120,00 € 18,00 100 % Total price (not weighed based on importance and frequency): € 420,0 0 €510,0 0 €350, 00 Total weighted price -Lowest price contract: 101€ 97€ 98€ Public Framework Contracts in Kosovo, some study aspects The winner based on the Lowest Price Tender Criterion: Company B. The reason is that although the total amount of unit prices is the lowest in Company C, the Regular Service Price (item No. 1), which will be ordered in most cases (60%), is the most expensive in the case of Company C. The total amount of unit prices is the highest at Company B, however, the most commonly needed item (No.1) is the one with the lowest price at this company, thus making the total price the lowest. Table no. 2, Value of contracts signed during 2007 – 2016 Value of contracts signed during the years, expressed in millions € Contracti ng Authorities: 20 07 2 008 20 09 20 10 20 11 20 12 2 013 2 014 2 015 2 016 Governme ntal 18 7.46 4 56.69 52 9.85 28 6.73 28 4.71 31 8.59 34 8.63 25 9.68 2 50.25 35 9.74 Public Companies 21 3.82 3 69.62 24 5.38 19 4.57 26 7.26 18 8.56 93. 62 12 9.57 1 49.81 62. 06 Other/NG O 0. 94 0. 16 2. 92 0.7 5 0.1 7 0.7 0 1.9 2 0. 47 1. 77 2.7 6 Total: 40 2.22 8 26.48 77 8.15 48 2.06 55 2.15 50 7.86 44 4.18 38 9.73 4 01.84 42 4.57 Source: Report on Public Procurement Activities for 2007 -2016, PPRC. In the above data, the values of signed contracts, where it is seen that Governmental Contracting Authorities have higher value compared to public companies and other authorities, are presented. In the share of the value of the contracts signed during 2016, Governmental -budgetary organizations participate with 84.73%, public companies with 14.62% while other authorities participate with only 0.65% in the total value of the signed contracts. Over the years, a comparison shows that Government Institutions financed by the State Budget participate in the largest amount of public signed contracts in comparison to public companies and other authorities. Given that, these types of framework contracts have begun to be used by all CAs, with particular emphasis being placed on contracting authorities such as the Central Procurement Agency, Kosovo Energy Corporation J.S.C., Post and Telecommunication of Kosovo J.S.C. and the other authorities. The value of these contracts is impossible to be specified since these contracts are mostly signed with unit price, but we can conclude that their value is high as we mainly deal with supplies such as derivatives and services such as property security, maintenance of objects etc., which reach a considerable amount in procurements developed in Kosovo. 4. Conclusions and recommendations As seen from above, public framework contracts are very useful tools to meet the needs of the Contracting Authorities. However, we must bear in mind that public framework contracts cannot be used to avoid normal public procurement rules. All normal procedures must be applied when concluding a public framework contract. This means that the open procedure should be implemented according to the LPP, should be published and be based on all required procedures and principles and the Articles of the LPP. Minimize, as far as possible, the use of negotiated procedures as well as small and minimal value contracts, using public framework agreements as well as centralized procurements; Assistance in the implementation of primary and secondary legislation at the municipal and central level, training and mentoring in the monitoring of the contracts, and counselling on the regular use of framework contracts. Azem Duraku Kosovo contracting authorities shall apply procurement procedures and rules that promote an efficient procurement, based on contemporary procurement practices and new technology, such as framework agreements and electronic procurement. Increase access to information regarding public tenders and, in general, regarding public procurement; and Raise awareness and knowledge among contracting authorities, economic operators, public procurement institutions and the general public. Tender security and fulfilment. Since it is not known the exact amount of goods, works or services to be procured (a rough estimate of them should be conducted), tender security cannot be made in percentage, therefore an approximate amount in monetary value should be specified (if the security will be applied) and which is based on the expected amount of the contract. In the case of multi-operator framework contracts, bid security is only required in the first phase and not in the mini-competition phase. Use of Standard Documents. The standard documents for procurement procedures -Framework contracts with one and more operators -should be used and compiled. These standard documents are mandatory for use and should be used fairly by deleting the parts that are not applied (such parts are highlighted) and completing the required parts depending on which variant is applied (with one or more operators). 5. Bibliography and References Ministry of Finance: Mid Term Expenditure Framework 2016 -2018, Prishtina, 2015. Public Procurement Regulatory Commission: National Public Procurement Strategy 2015-2020, Prishtina, 2015. World Bank, UNEP, IAPSO: Sustainable Procurement Training Package, 2004/2005. Sigma: Public Procurement Manual, 1996. Sigma: Training of Trainers in Public Procurement, 1999. Hoxha, S: Bazat e Prokurimit Publik, Prizren, 2016. Duli, I: Prokurimi Publik në Kosovë, Prishtinë, 2008. Duli, I: Prokurimi Publik në Kosovë – Një dekadë e gjysmë, Prishtinë, 2017. OECD: Government at a Glance 2015, OECD Publishing, Paris, 2015. PPRC: Reports on Public Procurement Activities in Kosovo for 2006 -2016, Prishtina, 2016. The Investigation of Perception of Psychological Contract Breach and Organizational Silence Behaviours In The Context of Demographic Characteristics: Case of Kilis State Hospital3,4 Orhan Balikci, Ozlem Yasar Ugurlu 1. Introduction Organizations have to keep pace with dynamic internal and external environment in order to survive (Dewe & Kompier, 2010). This dynamic environment leads to uncover new terms related to business relationships. Psychological contract and organizational silence are one of these new terms. Both of them effect on organizational performance. For this reason, employers, managers and coworkers need to know these elements and try to keep them under control. The theory of psychological contract plays a key role in understanding the relationship between individuals and organizations (Dahlke, 2017) and it provides an effective framework for defining the modern employment relationship. It has more properties then written contracts and removes the boundaries in written contracts. Organizational silence is one of the biggest blocks which organizations faces while using their human resources effectively. Because of this reason, for an organization to survive, individuals in an organization should not hide their ideas, opinion or feelings and share with each other and their organization (Vakola & Bouradas, 2005). With these reasons, this study covers analyzes which investigating perceived psychological contract breach and organizational silence behaviour of health employees in Kilis State Hospital. 2. Definition of The Term Psychological Contract Farnsworth refers contract as a group of verbal or written promises made, by the one party to the other party in a reciprocal relationship (Robinson & Rousseau, 1994, p. 245). Contracts are basement in organizations to create consensus between two sides to contract as employee and employer (Rousseau & Parks, 1992, p.2). The seeds of change take root in organizations and new psychological contracts are developing between organizations and their members. The traditional contract that existed between the organization and the employee is no longer effective (Sims, 1994, p. 374). “Note that these are beliefs or perceptions regarding promises and acceptance. Each party believes that both parties have made promises and that both parties have accepted the same contract terms. However, this does not necessarily mean that both parties share a common understanding of all contract terms. Each party only believes that they share the same interpretation of the contract” (Robinson & Rousseau, 1994, p. 246). There are different definitions made by researchers and each researcher proposes distinct perspective. The psychological contract is generally defined as explicit and implicit promises between employer and employee and beliefs about employment relationship between them (Rousseau & Tijoriwala, 1998, p. 679). The term “Psychological Contract” is firstly used by Chris Argyris. He observed the relationship between employees and a foreman, and then he called this relationship as a 3 This paper was presented as a oral presentation at XVI. European Conference on Social and Behavioral Sciences, May 10-12, 2018, Prizren, Kosovo and based on of master thesis of Orhan Balıkçı. 4 This paper was supported by Scientific Research Project Coordination Unit of Gaziantep University. Project Grant Number: İİBF.YLT.16 Orhan Balikci, Ozlem Yasar Ugurlu psychological work contract (Taylor & Tekleab, 2004, p. 254). After Chris Argyris, some researchers developed new definitions. Levinson et al. state psychological contract emerges from expectations regarding employment relationship in implicit and unspoken ways (Levinson et al, 1962, p. 27). Schein puts forth a definition, refers to it as the interaction between two sides in waiting with psychological dynamics (Taylor & Tekleab, 2004, p. 255). Like Levinson’s definition, Schein defines it as “a group of unwritten reciprocal expectations between an individual and an organization” (Guest, 1998). Kotter defines the psychological contract as an implicit contract between an individual and his organization which specifies what people expect to give and receive from each other in their relationship (Kotter, 1973). “In a psychological contract, consistency between what is promised (or understood) and what is received is an issue” (Rousseau, 1989). Psychological Contract Breach The problem here is that equilibrating between what employee promises and what he/she receives in return (Rousseau, 1989, p. 126). Perceived breach refers to understanding that situation which an individual’s organization fails to fulfill the promise given within the scope of psychological contract although the individual makes contribution as he/she promises. For this reason, whether this situation causes to violation bases on individual’s meaning of the breach in his/her mind (Morrison et al, 1997, p. 231). Perceiving breach is a subjective aspect. It literally depends on the meaning of breach in the individual’s mind. Although sometimes perceived breach is a result of true contract breach, sometimes it is not. In fact, there may not be a real breach; however, the employee assumes that the given promises are not fulfilled. Not giving clear promises by employers increases the gravity of this situation (Robinson & Morrison, 2000, p. 526). 3. Definition of Organizational Silence Morrison and Milliken (2000) coined the term silence in management literature. That paper was the first using the term silence. They use that term to describe collective-level silence of employee. Then, Pinder and Harlos (2001) defined employee silence in their paper as “the withholding of any form of genuine expression about the individual's behavioural, cognitive and/or affective evaluations of his or her organizational circumstances to persons who are perceived to be capable of effecting change or redress” (p. 334). Employee silence is to withhold thoughts in an individual level. On the other hand, organizational silence is collective level silence. In management literature, three forms of silence are mentioned. These are acquiescent silence, defensive silence and prosocial silence. When individuals do not actively contact with colleagues in organization, we cannot describe this as silence. The only absence of voice is not characterized as silence. Conceptualization of silence is limited with situation in which individual has relevant feelings, thoughts, opinions and he/she does not prefer to share them with co-workers. This is so important that individual has relevant ideas and hides or do not put them into words (Dyne et al., 2003, p. 1367). Acquiescent Silence includes disjoint behaviours and is classified as passive behaviour. Individuals silently accepts the situation they are in and do not attempt to change that situation. Because they does not believe they can change things (Dyne et al., 2003, p. 1367) Defensive silence is defined in management literature as deliberate omission (Pinder & Harlos, 2001). Individual withholds relevant ideas, information, or opinions to protect themselves from external threats. When compared to acquiescent silence, it is more proactive and conscious behaviour. While acquiescence is passive acceptance, defensive silence is based on fear of receiving bad response from co-worker. Thus, individual takes into all risks and alternatives before behaving so (Dyne et al., 2003, p. 1367). In prosocial silence, individuals hide related ideas, opinions, feelings or remains silent to be useful to other people and organization or protect them. The most important difference of prosocial silence from other silence is that individuals behave in that way to protect other people instead of oneself. It is a conscious decision and includes all possible consequences of alternatives like defensive (Dyne et The Investigation of Perception of Psychological Contract Breach al., 2003, p. 1368). Dyne et al. (2003) stated that although the three forms of silence assume the employee is intentionally withholding relevant ideas, information, and opinions and although the three forms of silence provide the same behavioural indicators (no speech acts), these behaviours can be differentiated based on the extent to which employee motive is more or less passive versus proactive and the extent that proactive behaviour is primarily self-protective versus other-oriented. Table 1 shows types of silence and examples of them. Table 1. Examples of specific types of silence (Dyne et al., 2003) Type of Behaviour Employee EMPLOYEE SILENCE Intentionally withholding work-related ideas, information, and opinion Employee Motive Disengaged Behaviour Based on Resignation Feeling unable to make a difference ACQUIESCENT SILENCE Examples: Withholding ideas based on resignation Keeping opinions to self-due to low self-efficacy to make a difference Self-Protective Behaviour Based on Fear Feeling afraid and personally at risk DEFENSIVE SILENCE Examples: Withholding information on problems based on fear Omitting facts to protect the self Other-Oriented Behaviour Based on Cooperation Feeling cooperative and altruistic PROSOCIAL SILENCE Examples: Withholding confidential information based on cooperation Protecting proprietary knowledge to benefit the organization 4. Purpose, Importance and The Hypothesis of The Study Psychological contract and organizational silence are one of issues effecting organizational performance. To reach organizational goals efficiently, these variables have to be under control and managed by employers or coworkers. This study aims to reveal whether perceived psychological contract breach and organizational silence behaviour show difference according to demographic characteristics. In this context, the conceptual model of the research was shown in Figure 1. Orhan Balikci, Ozlem Yasar Ugurlu Figure 1: Model of the study In order to reveal whether the variables of study show difference according to demographic characteristics, hypotheses were developed in below: H1: There is a statistically significant difference between psychological contract breach perceptions of employees having different demographic characteristics. H1a: There is a statistically significant difference between psychological contract breach perceptions of male and female employees. H1b: There is a statistically significant difference between psychological contract breach perceptions of married and single employees. H1c: There is a statistically significant difference between psychological contract breach perceptions of employees at different ages. H1d: There is a statistically significant difference between psychological contract breach perceptions of employees with different education levels. H1e: There is a statistically significant difference between psychological contract breach perceptions of employees of different professions. H2: There is a statistically significant difference between organizational silence behaviours of employees having different demographic characteristics. H2a: There is a statistically significant difference between organizational silence behaviours of male and female employees. H2b: There is statistically significant difference between organizational silence behaviours of married and single employees. H2c: There is statistically significant difference between organizational silence behaviours of employees at different ages. H2d: There is a statistically significant difference between organizational silence behaviours of employees with different education levels. H2e: There is a statistically significant difference between organizational silence behaviours of employees of different professions This study contributes to literature as the first study examining perceived psychological contract breach and organizational silence behaviours of health employees as far as literature is concerned. The Investigation of Perception of Psychological Contract Breach 5. Methodology A survey was conducted to 300 employees working in Kilis State Hospital. Sample of the study covers nurses and doctors who work in Kilis State Hospital. 55 doctors and 245 agreed to participate in the survey. In the first section of the questionnaire, demographic questions such as gender, marital status, age, education, experience in current profession, profession etc. placed. In the second section of the form, psychological contract breach and violation scale was used. It was developed by Robinson & Morrison (2000). The scale is one dimension. Turkish version of the scale was taken from Çetinkaya (2014) and the same version was used by Erdoğan (2015). It includes 9 questions on the five-point Likert scale, from strongly disagree to absolutely agree. The third section contains organizational silence scale. The scale was taken from Dyne, Ang, & Botero (2003). The scale has three sub dimensions as acquiescent silence, defensive silence, and prosocial silence. It comprises of 15 questions on the five-point Likert scale, from strongly disagree to absolutely agree. Turkish version of the scale was taken from Oruç (2015). Data gathered from the survey was analyzed in SPSS 22. To reveal whether perceived psychological contract breach and organizational silence behaviour show differences according to demographic characteristics, T test and One Way Anova was used in SPSS 22. 6. Findings Demographic characteristics of the sample was shown in Table 2. Most participants are between 18 and 25 years of age. 39% of them are women and 61% are men. 49% (147) of the participants are between 18 and 25, 29% (89) of them are between 26 and 35. 23%(71) of the participants are high school graduates, 77% (229) have bachelor’s degree. 65% of participants have between 0 and 5 years of experience in current profession. Demographic characteristics of the sample group are presented below: Table 2. Demographic characteristics of the sample Demogra Num Num phic ber of Percent Demographic ber of Percent Characteristic Participa ages (%) Characteristics Participa ages (%) s nts (N) nts (N) Gender Marital Status Male 117 39 Married 143 47 Female 183 61 Single 157 53 Total 300 100 Total 300 100 Age 18-25 26-35 36-45 46-55 147 89 53 11 49 29 17 3 Education High school Undergraduate/Gr aduate 71 229 23 77 Total 300 100 Total 300 100 Professio Experience in Current Profession n Doctor Nurse 55 245 19 81 0-5 6-10 11-15 195 55 15 65 18 5 16+ 35 11 Total 300 100 Total 300 100 Orhan Balikci, Ozlem Yasar Ugurlu 6.1 Investigation of Perceived Psychological Contract Breaches and Demographic Characteristics T test was applied to determine if there is statistical difference between perceived psychological contract breaches of males and females. The result was seen on Table 3. Table 3. Independent samples T test results for gender and perceived psychological contract breaches Scale r Gende N Mean Sd. df t p Perceive d Male 3 18 6 2,647 6 1,0566 29 8 -1,527 0,127 7 Psychologica l Contract Breaches Female 7 11 1 2,829 8 0,9139 It was not determined any statistical difference between perceived psychological contract breaches of male and female groups on psychological contract breach perception (t=-1,527; p>0,05). T test was used to analyze whether the psychological contract breaches perception varies according to marital status. The result was shown in Table 4. Table 4. Independent samples T test results for marital status and perceived psychological contract breaches Scale Marital Status N Mean Sd. df t p Perceived Psychological Contract Breaches Single 157 2,7924 0,94084 298 -1,337 0,182 Married 143 2,6371 1,06997 No statistical difference was found between single and married groups regarding perceived psychological contract breaches (t=-1,337, p>0,05). One-way Anova was used to analyze whether perceived psychological contract breaches differ according to age groups. The result was provided in Table 5. Table 5. Results of one-way Anova for age and perceived psychological contract breaches Sum of Squares df Mean Square F p Within Groups 0,478 3 0,159 0,156 0,926 Between Groups 301,980 296 1,020 Total 302,459 299 The result signed that no statistical difference between psychological contracts breach perception of age groups (F=0,156, p>0,05). T test was used to reveal effect of education level on Perceived Psychological Contract Breaches. Results of T test on perceived psychological contract breaches was demonstrated on Table 6. The Investigation of Perception of Psychological Contract Breach Table 6. Results of T test on perceived psychological contract breaches of different education levels Scale Education Level N an Me Sd. df t p Percei ved High School 1 7 924 2,7 0,12 946 99, 0, 0, Psychologi cal Undergraduates/ 2 2,6 0,06 475 709 480 Contract Master 29 371 859 Breaches Average of undergraduates and graduates is 2,79, average of high school graduates is 2,63. As a result of the T test, there are no significant differences in the perceptions of psychological contract breaches among employees at different levels of education (t=0,709, p>0,05). T test was used to reveal the effect of profession on perceived psychological contract breaches. Results of T test on the effect of profession on perceived psychological contract breaches was demonstrated on Table 7. Table 7. Result of T test for professions and perceived psychological contract breaches Scale on Professi N n Mea Sd. df t p Perceiv ed Doctor 55 43 2,83 04 1,031 78,4 57 0,9 28 0,3 56 Psychologic al Contract Breaches Nurse 5 24 23 2,69 30 1,000 The result showed a statistically significant difference between psychological contract breach perceptions of employees of different professions was not determined (t=0,928, p>0,05). 6.2 Investigation of Organizational Silence and Demographic Characteristics T test was applied to determine whether organizational silence behaviour differs according to gender. The result can be seen in Table 8. Table 8. Result of T test for gender and organizational silence Scale er Gend N n Mea Sd. df t p Organizati Male 83 1 03 2,58 93 0,902 18 251,1 47 1,1 52 0,2 onal Silence le Fema 17 1 93 2,45 12 0,884 The result indicated that there is not any significant difference between organizational silence behaviours of male and female groups. (t=1,147, p>0,05). An independent sample T test was performed to check whether the organizational silence behaviour of employees varies according to marital status. The result was given in Table 9. Scale Marit al Status N n Mea Sd. df t p Orhan Balikci, Ozlem Yasar Ugurlu Organizatio d Marrie 3 14 2 2,411 22 1,004 29 8 -2,26 4 0,024 2 nal Silence Single 7 15 2 2,644 45 0,771 Table 9. Result of T test for marital status and organizational silence Significant difference was found between marital status of participants in relation to organizational silence (t=-2,264, p<0,05). Single participants showed more silence than married participants. One-way Anova was used to compare age groups. One-way Anova results can be seen in Table 10. Table 10. Result of one-way Anova for age and organizational silence Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Within Groups 3,114 3 1,038 1,296 0,276 Between Groups 236,988 296 0,801 Total 240,102 299 According to the results, there was no statistical difference between the age groups (F=1,296, p>0,05). T test was used to determine whether it differs according to the level of education. Result of t test for education level and organizational silence was given in Table 11. Table 11. Result of T test for education level and organizational silence Scale Marital Status N an Me Sd. df t p Organiza High School 1 7 619 2,7 0,9 104 97, 175 2,3 431 0,0 211 tional Silence Undergraduate /Master 29 2 596 2,4 0,8 745 Mean of high school graduate participants is 2,7619, mean of undergraduate/master graduate participants is 2,4596. It was found that statistical difference between organizational silence behaviour of high school graduate participants and undergraduate/master graduate participants (t=2,3431, p<0,05). Lastly, to reveal difference between organizational silence behaviours of different professions, T test was applied. The result was provided in Table 12. Table 12. Result of T test for profession and organizational silence Scale er Gend N n Mea Sd. df t p Organizatio or Doct 5 5 90 2,74 80 0,78 47 89,6 16 2,18 31 0,0 nal Silence e Nurs 45 2 46 2,48 30 0,91 As a result of the analysis, there was a significant difference between doctor and nurse participants (t=2,1816, p<0,05). Doctors’ mean is 2,7490, nurses’ mean is 2,4846. It means doctors prefer to remain silent more than nurses in the organization. 8. Discussion In the hospital that was investigated, perceived psychological contract breaches of health employees do not show difference according to any demographic characteristics, The Investigation of Perception of Psychological Contract Breach The results of Tarakcı and Akın (2017) parallel with the result of this study. Tarakcı and Akın (2017) says perceived psychological contract breaches of individuals did not show difference according to gender, age, marital status and education level. Also, according to the result of Aslan and Boylu (2014), perceived psychological contract breaches of individuals did not differ according to gender, education level. The results of Bağ and Ekinci (2018) show silence behaviours of individuals differs according to gender and profession, Şahin and Yalçın says silence behaviours of individuals differs according to age, education level, experience in the profession and experience in the organization. These results parallel with the result of this study. Single individuals show more silence behaviours compared to married individuals. The reasons can be listed as follows: they need a job more, fast and easy adaptation to long working hours, high working tempos and hard-working conditions, high job security as a public employee. On the other hand, high school graduates prefer to be more silent than university graduates. This may be related to these reasons: they have limited employment opportunities as a high school graduate; the public sector offers better opportunities than the private sector, the good salary for a high school graduate, limited institutional change possibilities. In addition to these results, doctors rated the silence higher than nurses. Possible reasons are comfortable working conditions of public hospital compared to private hospital, career opportunities, and some legal obligations such as compulsory service. Suggestions to be made are can be listed as: • The goals of the hospital and the employees should be compatible each other. • Communication channels should be kept open for employees to get ideas • The hospital should consider the educational levels, marital status of employees to manage them effectively and try to satisfy the expectations from these points 9. 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Therefore, the importance of designing new tools for layouting the facilities to increase their efficiency and effectiveness is quite a lot. The layout design process is a very sophisticated process that requires unparalleled decision analysis and simultaneous design support through out the process. The process of arranging the physical location of the facilities like machines, tools, work centers, distribution centers etc for manufacturing or other operations is known as Facility Layout Problem (FLP). The layouting of these and other countless facilities in every manufacturing operation is one of the biggest and most radical strategic issues. Modifying or rearranging the pre-existing layouts can cost a substantial amount of money (Singh & Singh, 2010). However, efficient layouting can reduce the overall costs and improve the overall efficiency of the whole operations substantially (Tomkins et al., 2003). A facility layout planner’s job is to create a seamlessly efficient design by using the given information such as overall production capacity required, processing routes, machines and their capabilities etc. Around 20% to 50% of the overall costs are related to the material handling. Therefore, many layout planners use the criteria of minimizing these material costs, when they are designing the facility layout (Francis & White, 1974). It was actually derived as a Quadratic Assignment Problem (QAP) initially (Koopmans & Beckman,1957). To solve facility layout problems on a smaller scale, methods like branch and bound technique (Salimanpur & Jafari, 2008) and cutting planes method (Singh & Sharma, 2006) can be used to get favorable results. Nevertheless, to achieve success on a large scale, more detailed, layered and heuristic methods like simulated annealing, genetic algorithm, ant colony algorithms and other techniques based on QAP should be used (Misevicius, 2003; Lee et al, 2003). The pre-existing approaches used in FLP are composed of inflexible design algorithms that are quite simplistic in nature. There is no certain methodology present in the literature that can be followed to get favorable results using FLP. A design planner has to deal with a lot of trade-offs at every stage in the facility design planning. However, a superior layout should be agile, flexible and adapt to changes in the industry. Unfortunately, most of the design methods currently present are not flexible and robust (Abdinnour-Helm &Hadley, 2000). With the help of extremely powerful soft computing tools, many tools have been developed to solve the layout design problems. These tools include decision support systems, fuzzy logic, expert systems, QAP and ant colony algorithms etc (Karray & De Silva, 2004). Distribution of various facilities in every industry or manufacturing unit is very significant as it directly induces the efficiency, manufacturing costs, overall lead times, productivity and many other intrinsic and extrinsic costs (Kouvelis et al., 1992). Frazzle, (1986) did an extensive research to come up with some important figures in a traditional manufacturing facility that are very important to consider when designing a facility layout. Frazzlle pointed out that the material handling system used in the facility accounts 25% of all the employees in the company, it also accounts for 55% of the total space, and 87% for total production time. Therefore, it is considered that around 20 to 50% of the production cost comes from material handling. It is quite a high number and it can be minimized by around 30% by a more efficient facility layout design (Francis & White, 1974). Another research done by Tompkins et al. (2003), suggested that around 8% of the total GNP of United States Of America is used on building and developing new facilities. The basic and fundamental principle of lean management called continuous improvement should also be considered when designing a new facility layout as around $250 billion are spent every year just on facility planning and re-planning in the Kamil Bircan United States of America alone. This figure goes way up if one adds up the money spent on facility planning around the globe. 2. Literature Review There is a large amount of literature available on the topic layout design and the concerns that come with it. Previously, this very problem of layout designing has been also referred to as block placement (Ahmad, 2005), layout optimization (Cohoon et al., 1991), facilities layout (Tam et al., 2002), topology optimization (Mir & Imam, 1992), plant or machine layout (Hassan & Hogg, 1994), facility partitioning (Moon & Kim, 1998) and bin-packing (Jakobs, 1996) etc. In FLP, all the given activities and the elements are assigned a certain space in any given perimeter. Therefore, the layout creates a relationship between the given objectives and the activities (Welgama et al., 1995). The facility layout also has a link with the intangible things like overall safety and the environment. FLP is based on many factors including political, social, safety, economical, communication and commutation (Meller & Gau, 1996). An appropriately designed facility increases the overall efficiency and the productivity of the whole operations which results in increased profits for the organization (Norman & Smith, 2002). As the advantages of an adequately designed facility are huge, a lot of research and investment is allocated to it. Different kinds of formulations for FLP are present in the literature based on extensive research. In this paper, the focus will be on describing only two of them; Quadratic Assignment Problem (QAP) and Ant Colony Algorithm (ACA). QAP focuses on dealing with certain decisions related to allocating a location to all the qual area modules. The QAP approach assigns one and only one module to all the given locations. It has ana NP-Complete nature, so procuring an optimal solution for more than 16 modules can be a little difficult (Meller & Gau, 1996). However, almost all of the pre-existing formulations of FLP have a few limitations which makes them incompatible in real life scenarios. For instance, the QAP formulation does not allow to change the shape of the given modules in a facility layout (Deb & Bhattacharyya, 2004). These formulations are backed up by highly complicated mathematical models which do not offer a lot of advantage in the practical world when they are used to deal with real facility layouts. They also rely heavily on exact and precise parameter values, which are very hard to measure accurately and if there is even a tiny error in their calculation, the resulting layout will be flawed as well (Mir & Imam, 1992). Usually, this kind of data is only available to design a simplified layout in theory only for training and learning purposes. When a large sized layout problem with uncertain issues and parameters is given, such formulations tend to fail to design an optimal layout. Ant colony algorithm or optimization is derived from the movements of ants. Their systematic movement from one point to another using the shortest distance patch from their colony to the food is quite unique. Although, it can be said that one can never be so sure that the ants are always looking for the shortest distance, but this is usually what they achieve most of the time (Monteiro et al., 2011). Ants leave a substance called pheromone throughout the way when they are going towards their food source, and the latter ants choose the path with the highest concentration of the pheromone. This system of movement from one point to another allowed Dorigo and Stutzle to develop the Ant system to resolve a famous NP-Hard Problem called The Travelling Salesman (Dorigo et al., 1999). After the efforts of Dorigo and Stutzle in forming the first ever ant colony algorithm, many improvements have been made in the algorithm over time. However, the biggest development in the algorithm would definitely be the introduction of the Metaheuristic approach in the Ant Colony Optimization (Dorigo & Stutzle, 2003). The introduction of Daemon in the AS algorithm also helped to improve the overall usability of such algorithm. The Daemon allows to execute solutions to all the operations using the global knowledge. It also controls the feasibility of every solution. For example, giving extra amount of pheromone to the best possible outcome in the algorithm. Different Ant Colony Optimization strategies are used to solve facility layout problems every now and then. However, most of them consider FLP as a QAP. Usually the FLP is represented using the slicing tree structure. The Ant Colony Algorithm provides the best known solution to different layout problems. It uses nine different types of searches to increase the efficiency of the algorithm. A Meta-Intuitive Analytical Approach to Facility Layout Problem 3. Mathematical Model The mathematical model for QAP are taken from Azarbonyad & Babazadeh, (2014) and are as follows: (1) is the objective function and it helps to minimize the distance between different given facilities. (2) and (4) constraints ensure that each of the facility is assigned to one and only one location. Constraint (3) and (4) helps in making sure that each location ‘j’ has only facility assigned to itself. QAP is formulated as an integer optimization problem using a quadratic objective function. 4. Problem Description The problem is based on a factory which manufactures agricultural machines mainly vehicles like tractors, seeders and other heavy machinery. The factory is composed of many buildings and every vehicle/machinery that is manufactured there crosses atlas two buildings X1 and X2 as shown in the figure. For the sake of the problem formulation and then putting it into a model, certain zones called car location are formed where different maintenance and assembly tasks are performed. All the cares are produced in batches and they also travel in sequences in the manufacturing facility. A transporter that moves on a fixed trajectory is used to carry the vehicles. Rail lines are used to move these vehicles using the transporter in the manufacturing facility buildings. There are certain manufacturing takes that require long period of time, occupying locations for longer time. They are also known as the bottlenecks in operations management. Due to the capacity constraint, certain vehicles will have to move out of the facility to give room for new ones to enter. Kamil Bircan Figure 1. The current layout of manufacturing facility The current layout of the manufacturing facility is constraining for the production and planning of the agricultural machinery and vehicles. The problem is to develop an optimal layout in one of the buildings to minimize the material handling and movement of goods. In simple words, a better resource configuration should be developed for one building of the manufacturing facility to optimize the flow of all resources. If N resources are allotted to N sites in one of the buildings, and the distance is D. Every element dk,w will represent the distance between two locations, k and w respectively, where k=1,2,3….N. Similarly a flow matrix F for fi,j elements where the flow of cost between two resources i and j will be shown for i,j=1,2,3,4…..N. The latter one i.e. the flow cost is highly dependent of the number of journeys between any two given resources, in a certain time. Because of the precedence constraints in the problem, the matrix flow will not be considered symmetrical as well. However, the distance matrix will be considered symmetrical as it’s calculation is based on the number of vehicles moving in one of the buildings for exchange of goods. 5. Formulation Of Quadratic Assignment Problem (QAP) Using some assumptions, the QAP will be used to solve the given FLP in this paper. In the given problem, the vehicle location sizes are considered identical and also the interval between locations are already established numerical values. That is why, using QAP for the given problem was possible. As A Meta-Intuitive Analytical Approach to Facility Layout Problem mentioned above, assigning all the facilities to certain locations to reduce the all the costs related to material handling and movement and flows comes under the QAP model. fi,j represents the respective flow between i and j facility. Similarly, dk,w represents the distance between k and w locations. Then, Where p(ij) is a variable. 6. Ant Colony Algorithm Model The following steps are formed under the ant colony algorithm model to deal with the given layout problem: 1-Constructing Solutions 2-Gathering all the heuristic information 3-Updating the Pheromone 4-Probability Selection Every ant in the proposed algorithm is allotted a task i to a certain location j (i,j). After finishing that , another task is allotted to k (i,k) and so on. A tabu list is formed that illustrate all the sets of tasks assigned to an ant. It also ensures that every task has been allotted to a certain location and no task is left behind without an assigned location. The cost of the assignment of a given task to its location is calculated by the ants. The flow and distance matrix are used to calculate the total cost of the task. The visibility of the assignment cost is also known as the Heuristic Information. The cost related to any given assignment (i,j) is as follows: The following equation shows the pheromone updating mechanism: It depicts the quantity of pheromone related to the task assignment i to the location l, when k are the ants used for iteration t. When an ant chooses to select this assignment, the value of pheromone updating mechanism increases. K is a parameter in the equation and it is also a scaling factor. The above-mentioned equation calculates the rate of change in trail levels of assignments that an ant performs. The smaller the denominator value i.e. fit [k], the greater will the increase in the trail. Kamil Bircan The above-mentioned equation depicts the probability of the ant k selecting task i and assigning it to location number 1. 7. Results The Visual C++ software was used to implement the algorithm on a Core i7 2.8 GHZ CPU speed PC. Four different parameters were used in the proposed algorithm. Their values are given in the following table. All of these parameters directly affect the overall performance of the proposed algorithm. Many pilot runs were executed to derive the most appropriate parameters. The ant numbers from 1 to 40 were tested, and then AN=20 was selected after compromising on the convergence time and the overall quality of the results. When the Ants Number was fixed, max_iter=10 was found as the best convergence for it. The alpha value of 0.6 was also calculated in the experiment. Normally, it is around 0.5, but in this experiment it was calculated 0.6, which shows that the solutions formed in the experiment support the pheromone trails more than single ant’s path. Table 1. Parameters and Values of Algorithm Parameters Values AN 20 max_iter 10 Alpha 0.6 t0 0 The given problem has 70 locations and 25 of them were considered unstable. !0 of them were standardized locations and the rest of them were specialized locations. The initial conditions for the formed algorithm was the actual resource assignment. The calculations were based on one year data planning. The total cost of the actual layout was 425, but the layout formed by using the algorithm produced a new layout solution with 19.6% improvement. As mentioned in the problem, only six of the tasks were assigned by following an enumeration method. Although, the solution presented by it was the same as produced by the algorithm which ensures it’s usage to all the similar industrial problems. The same algorithm and it’s application can be used in the future for the similar problems and scenarios. Increasing the performance of the industry is always the top priority and by using appropriate QAP or ACO algorithms, it can be achieved. As the company grows, more tasks and locations will be added into the layout. Therefore, it is important to test the same algorithm for more locations and tasks. 8. Conclusion In this paper, existing approaches QAP and ACO were used to find the solution for a FLP in an agricultural machinery-manufacturing organization. The map and the details of the facility were provided in the paper above. A brief analysis of the literature was also done before starting the research to understand the given problem and FLP in more detail. Using QAP to solve FLP is a NP-Complete problem. The results of the research suggest that the used algorithm provides well-suited answer to similar situations. A 19.6% improvement was also recorded in the results section. However, only 6 tasks were assigned in the algorithm. Usually, the operations map of the similar industries has more than six tasks assigned. That is why, resolving FLP in a more and more difficult layout is considered a future scope of this work. A simplified and well distributed layout of the facility can be obtained by using the Ant Colony Optimization Algorithm and formulating the Pheromone path for the movement of goods and tasks between locations as done in this paper. By doing this, the new layout helps in minimizing the total material handling cost in uncertain demand, which are quite high in every industry. A Meta-Intuitive Analytical Approach to Facility Layout Problem 9. References Abdinnour-Helm, S., & Hadley, S. W. (2000). Tabu search based heuristics for multi-floor facility layout. International Journal of Production Research, 38(2), 365-383. Ahmad, A. R. (2005). An intelligent expert system for decision analysis and support in multiattribute layout optimization. Azarbonyad, H., & Babazadeh, R. (2014). A Genetic Algorithm for solving Quadratic Assignment Problem (QAP). arXiv preprint arXiv:1405.5050. Cohoon, J. P., Martin, W. N., & Richards, D. S. (1991). Genetic algorithms and punctuated equilibria in VLSI. In Parallel Problem Solving from Nature (pp. 134-144). Springer Berlin Heidelberg. Dorigo, M., & Sttzle, T. (2003). The ant colony optimization metaheuristic: Algorithms, applications, and advances. In Handbook of metaheuristics (pp. 250-285). Springer US. Francis R, White J (1974). Facility layout and location: an analytical approach. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Frazelle, E. H. (1986). Material handling: a technology for industrial competitiveness. Material Handling Research Center, Georgia Institute of Technology. García-Hernández, L. (2011). Genetic approaches for the unequal area facility layout problem. Hassan, M. M., & Hogg, G. L. (1991). On constructing a block layout by graph theory. The International Journal Of Production Research, 29(6), 1263-1278. Jakobs, S. (1996). On genetic algorithms for the packing of polygons. European Journal of Operational Research, 88(1), 165-181. Karray, F. O., & De Silva, C. W. (2004). Soft computing and intelligent systems design: theory, tools, and applications. Pearson Education. Koopmans, T. C., & Beckmann, M. (1957). Assignment problems and the location of economic activities. Econometrica: journal of the Econometric Society, 53-76. Kouvelis, P., Kurawarwala, A. A., & Gutierrez, G. J. (1992). Algorithms for robust single and multiple period layout planning for manufacturing systems. European journal of operational research, 63(2), 287-303. Lee, K. Y., Han, S. N., & Roh, M. I. (2003). An improved genetic algorithm for facility layout problems having inner structure walls and passages. Computers & Operations Research, 30(1), 117-138. Meller, R. D., & Gau, K. Y. (1996). The facility layout problem: recent and emerging trends and perspectives. Journal of manufacturing systems, 15(5), 351-366. Mir, M., & Imam, M. H. (1992). Topology optimization of arbitrary-size blocks using a bivariate formulation. Computer-Aided Design, 24(10), 556-564. Misevičius, A. (2003). A modified simulated annealing algorithm for the quadratic assignment problem. Informatica, 14(4), 497-514. Monteiro, M. S., Fontes, D. B., & Fontes, F. A. (2011, July). An ant colony optimization algorithm to solve the minimum cost network flow problem with concave cost functions. In Proceedings of the 13th annual conference on Genetic and evolutionary computation (pp. 139-146). ACM. Moon, B. R., & Kim, C. K. (1998). Dynamic embedding for genetic VLSI circuit partitioning. Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence, 11(1), 67-76. Norman, B. A., & Smith, A. E. (2002). Considering uncertainty in unequal area block layout design. citeseer. ist. psu. edu/271501. html. Singh, S. P., & Sharma, R. R. K. (2006). A review of different approaches to the facility layout problems. The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 30(5-6), 425-433. Singh, S. P., & Singh, V. K. (2010). An improved heuristic approach for multi-objective facility layout problem. International Journal of Production Research, 48(4), 1171-1194. Solimanpur, M., & Jafari, A. (2008). Optimal solution for the two-dimensional facility layout problem using a branch-and-bound algorithm. Computers & Industrial Engineering, 55(3), 606-619. Sttzle, T., & Dorigo, M. (1999). ACO algorithms for the quadratic assignment problem. New ideas in optimization, 33-50. Tomkins J, Bozer Y, Frazelle E, Tanchoco J, Trevino J (2003) Facility Planning. John Wiley and Sons, New York. Kamil Bircan Welgama, P. S., & Gibson, P. R. (1995). Computer-aided facility layout—A status report. The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 10(1), 66-77. Aircraft Fleet Management by Quantitative Methods Abdullah Enes Bolat, Fahrettin Eldemir 1. Introduction The factors that affect the demand for air travel are passenger demand, regulatory and infrastructural changes, and the innovation of new services from existing business models. (Commercial Market Outlook, 2017). Airlines operate in a business with very low profit margins; the typical profit margin in the industry was expected to be around 4-5% in 2017 (IATA, December 2016, para 1). One of the major cost factors is fuel prices, which have increased steadily since the lows seen in 2015. Prices have already started to recover but in the short-term, prices are not expected to reach peak levels of the past (Airbus GMF 2017, p. 12) and the long-term forecasts for crude oil either favor a direct increase in price over time or offer two alternate scenarios (Commercial Market Outlook, 2017, p. 21). Since fuel cost is one of the major constituents of an airline's (operating) costs, this price uncertainty reflects on the profitability expectancy and asset acquirement decisions to be taken. Depending on the type and age of aircraft, the fuel cost can range between 20-25% of the total operating expenses (IATA, December 2016, para 6), though the average was slightly more than 17% worldwide ("IATA Fact Sheet -Fuel", 2017 p. 1). Crew costs and maintenance costs are the other constituents of the operating costs of airlines. While crew costs do not typically change with the age of the aircraft, maintenance costs do as there are more intensive events occurring at later stages of an aircraft's life cycle. Older aircraft are typically less fuel efficient than the new generation models due to advances in engine technology and aircraft design made over time, with efficiencies of up to 15-20% expected for the A320neo and similar rates for the competitor Boeing 737 MAX (Bhaskara, 2016, para 6). Coupled their higher maintenance costs, older aircraft will more likely be favored to be replaced if the fuel prices increase at the rates expected in the high price scenario. The growing airline travel market, coupled with the low profit margins driving airlines towards cost savings and efficiency, all drive the demand for new aircraft. Both of the dominant manufacturers (Airbus and Boeing) expect more than 30,000 new deliveries in their 2017 forecasts, of which more than 55% are expected to be for growth and the remaining for replacement (Airbus GMF 2017, p. 39; Commercial Market Outlook, 2017, p. 21). The airline market and the aircraft market are two markets that are closely related to one another, such that the demand in the airline industry affects the demand for aircraft and therefore the aircraft market. It is no surprise then that aircraft manufacturers are keen on forecasting the demand for air travel (airline market) to be able to forecast the demand for their own market. There are two major manufacturers of civilian aircraft that are dominant in the market, namely Airbus and Boeing. There are new manufacturers that are aiming to enter this market or have already done so, but have not found much popularity, such as the COMAC C919 that is "aiming to make the first delivery in 2021" (Goh, 2018, para. 1) and the Sukhoi Superjet 100 respectively. There are also several manufacturers of regional aircraft, such as Bombardier and Embraer, some of which are also trying to enter the market by either creating new products that are expected to directly enter the market (as in the case of Bombardier’s C-series) or compete with the lower end (capacity-wise) of the civil aircraft in the market by altering their existing models to increase capacity. 1.1Airline Market Growth Passenger demand is usually measured in Revenue Passenger Kilometers (RPK) or Revenue Passenger Miles (RPM). It is estimated that "air traffic (RPK) doubles every 15 years" (Airbus Global Market Forecast 2017, p. 7) and "year-over-year passenger growth has averaged 6.2%" (Boeing, Commercial Market Outlook 2017, p.7). Global Economic Growth, usually measured through the Gross Domestic Product (GDP), is one of the key drivers of this demand but is not the only driver of passenger demand. Consumer/personal Abdullah Enes Bolat, Fahrettin Eldemir income and consumer spending, employment, international trade, domestic investment and the age of the working population are reported as being major drivers in forecasts (Airbus Global Market Forecast 2017) as well as low air fares, higher standards of living, a growing middle class in large emerging markets and the growth of tourism (Commercial Market Outlook 2017). Stronger economies in emerging markets have also contributed to the growth, with the domestic market in China alone expected to grow nearly 4 times in the next 20 years. The Middle East, Asia Pacific, Africa and Latin American Markets are expected to the major growth areas for the next 20 years in order of highest growth, with the mature European and US markets expecting growths of 3.4 and 2.4% respectively. (Airbus GMF 2017, p. 26) Positive regulatory changes also support the growth of the air travel industry. The most obvious example of this is in the case of the Trans-Atlantic Market. The Atlantic (including Europe and the Middle East) and Canada Market is a historically mature market, with an expected average growth of 3% per year between 2017-2037 (FAA, FAA Aerospace Forecast 2017). This number is up from the 6.2% decline in growth experienced in the 2009 crisis and a more or less flat average 2% year on year growth experienced when evaluated in 2012 (Boeing Current Market Outlook 2012). The market has grown steadily since then through bi-lateral agreements (such as the EU-US Open Skies), business model renewals, and the entry of Low Cost Carriers into the market. On a global scale, Open Skies Agreements worldwide have further allowed liberalization to extend beyond the borders of traditionally domestic markets (Commercial Market Outlook 2017). Liberalization has also allowed for flights to previously restricted airspaces such as Cuba and Iran, allowing for growth opportunities. Another prominent example of regulatory change that has promoted growth in the market is the entry of Low Cost Carriers (LCCs) into the market. "The LCC business model would not have flourished without relaxation of government-regulated airline ticket pricing and heavy new market entrant regulation." (Commercial Market Outlook 2017, p. 9) LCCs operate through the concept of cost minimization to maximize profitability. Most LCCs operate in the short-haul market, which is defined as "flights that are less than 5 hours" by IATA (IATA Passenger Survey p.4). Within the industry, however, short haul flights typically range less than 3 hours. Adopting different strategies to the traditional "legacy" or "flag carriers", LCCs have taken to take advantage of cost advantages on short haul flights, using short turnaround times, high utilization of crew and assets, service to lower cost airports and limited in-flight services and entertainment, higher density cabin, lower yield and higher volume and generating additional revenue from services traditionally offered by other airlines within the ticket price. Through these strategies, LCCs have contributed to the growth of the airline market significantly and have become an important method of transportation, accounting for as much as 50% in the South East Asian market and more than 30% and 35% in the North American and European markets respectively (Commercial Market Outlook 2017, p.15). 1.2Literature Review It is clear that airlines will therefore need appropriate fleet replacement and acquisition strategies to be able to meet the increasing demand while competing in a low profit margin industry with a changing competition environment due to the liberalization of the industry. Unfortunately, there are very few articles on the subject of fleet planning, aircraft procuring and aircraft phase-outing. There are several reasons but two of most important ones are these decisions are based on strategic plans and decisions, and they require very confidential data and analysis. Two of the directly related work will be reviewed first. Bazargan and Hartman, 2012 developed an integer program to minimize total discounted purchasing, leasing, operating and maintenance costs, and presented results for the application of two US airlines with generally leasing options. They conclude that these solutions yield benefits from having newer aircraft with less diversity. These are true for low costs airlines, and in reality, big network carriers usually buy their aircraft from manufacturers such as Boeing, Airbus, Embraer and Bombardier, and they tend to diversify their fleet to service different segments of the passengers. Furthermore, big low cost carriers also tend to order from manufacturer directly. One reason for such result may be the budget constraints in the model combines and limits total short haul and long haul aircraft to be added to the fleet for a particular period. In practice, a Aircraft Fleet Management by Quantitative Methods certain percentage of aircraft price is paid in installments until the aircraft is produced and delivered to the airline. At this point, a leasing company or financer purchases the aircraft on behalf of the airline and lease back to it. The airline is reimbursed the pre-paid installments from the manufacturer. The leasing term and the leasing rate is determined during the tender process. In the model, there are no leased aircraft at the beginning of the planning period, where in reality, airlines will have leased aircraft with different termination periods at all times if it is an airline currently in operation. Bazargan and Hartman, 2012 also ignore several key aspects practiced in reality. Airlines almost always buy new aircraft from the manufacturer; where the model allows for the purchase of used aircraft, and hence, it unnecessarily introduces variables that will not take any value. In practice, aircraft are leased from lessors at various ages and rarely, airlines sub-lease their aircraft to other airlines. This model assumes that all the lessors ask for the same lease rent for the aircraft of same type and age. In reality, lease rates depend on financial and market position of lessors and need of the airlines. For example, a big lessor could ask for a higher lease price compared to a smaller lessor. Finally, the model assumes that, at the same age, for the same type of aircraft, maintenance costs are the same. However, for leased aircraft, life limited parts (LLP) on the engines and landing gears, Airworthiness Directive (AD) requirements, component usage cycles, and so on will differ causing different maintenance intervals and costs. Additionally, some lessors require reserves monthly to guarantee that at the time of the maintenance, the lessor will have sum of money to pay the cost of the maintenance. Others opt what is called “end of lease compensation” in which the airline fixes and maintains the components and engines as required. For the LLP parts, whatever is not compensated by the maintenance program is paid back to the lessor through the formulas agreed at the beginning of the lease period. Additionally, airlines may wet lease aircraft from other operators. In other words, for period when the airline has excess demand, they may opt to lease one or more aircraft from another operator for a 6 months or a year period on the ACMI (Aricraft, Crew, Maintenance and Insurance) basis. The owner of the aircraft (operator in this case) will be bear the cost of lease rate, insurance, cockpit and cabin crew of the aircraft, and all the maintenance cost and in return it will charge the airline a rate based on the operating hours. For example, for a guaranteed block hour of 300 hours per month, the lessor will ask the airline to pay 3000 USD per hour for the ACMI costs. If the airline uses 325 hours for a particular month, the operator will get 325*3000=975.000 USD and if the airline uses the aircraft for example 215 hours then it will pay the minimum guaranteed sum of 300*3000=900.000 USD. Beside this cost, the airline will pay all the remaining operating costs such as fuel, handling, catering, navigation, etc. This way of adding capacity to the fleet allows the airline to absorb fluctuating demand for short periods. Hsu, Li, Liu and Chao, 2011 developed a dynamic programming model employing Markov-chain and applied it over a case study in EVA airlines. The model may work for small -medium airlines that need to adjust their fleet against sever demand fluctuations in short periods. Additionally, larger network carriers may find it useful for the operational lease aircraft. Near the end lease periods, Airlines may opt to extend these leases. Here, effective models to capture the randomness of the demand can help to optimize the tradeoff between decreasing lease rate versus increasing airframe and engine maintenance costs. Besides these cases, ordering new aircraft in big number or disposing older types from fleet are airlines strategic decisions and usually based on the market position that the airline is aiming for. A good example for such a market strategy is Turkish Airlines, which has showed a remarkable growth trend with double digits for the last 13 years. Dursun, 2011, and Alcacer and Çekin, 2015, have examined the market position, advantages and strategies that brought Turkish Airlines from a local airline with 60 aircraft to a global brand with 330 aircraft today. A wide body aircraft fleet consisting of Airbus A330s and Boeing 777-300ERs makes up around 25-30% of the total fleet and a narrow body aircraft fleet that is evenly distributed between the Airbus A320 and Boeing 737 NGs comprises the rest. To maintain the cost efficiency in the ownership costs, Turkish Airlines has procured more than 300 aircraft from Airbus and Boeing for the last 6-7 years. A good example for such a market strategy is Turkish Airlines, which has showed a remarkable growth trend with double digits for the last 13 years. Dursun, 2011, and Alcacer and Çekin, 2015, have Abdullah Enes Bolat, Fahrettin Eldemir examined the market position, advantages and strategies that brought Turkish Airlines from a local airline with 60 aircraft to a global brand with 330 aircraft today. A wide body aircraft fleet consisting of Airbus A330s and Boeing 777-300ERs makes up around 25-30% of the total fleet and a narrow body aircraft fleet that is evenly distributed between the Airbus A320 and Boeing 737 NGs comprises the rest. To maintain the cost efficiency in the ownership costs, Turkish Airlines has procured more than 300 aircraft from Airbus and Boeing for the last 6-7 years. Ansaripoor, Fernando and Liret, 2014 developed a stochastic mixed integer linear programming model for vehicle fleet management problem with the uncertainties on the carbon prices, fuel prices, mileage driven, and fuel consumption. Replacement decisions are based on minimizing expected cost and risk simultaneously. Flag carriers utilizing aircraft with different capacities, belonging to multiple families frequently face the problem of effectively matching supply and demand under uncertainty for short periods of time. Bish, Suwandechochai and Bish, 2004 propose a Demand Driven Swapping (DDS) approach that takes advantage of the flexibilities in the system and dynamically swaps aircraft as departures near and more accurate demand information is obtained. They analyze the effectiveness of different DDS strategies by testing hem using data obtained from United Airlines. Lessors also face the same problem when redesigning their portfolio, adding more assets from manufacturers, from other lessors (novation), airlines (refinancing) or displacing some assets to other lessors or to part-out companies. Forsberg, 2012 from Avalon leasing company shed light to decision makers in the Aviation industry where 8000 aircraft were expected to be retired. This study must be renewed for the current aging fleet types, such as A340 family, B777 family as well as A320 and B737 classics and NG. Gibson and Morrell, 2004 discuss the pitfalls of using discount factor or cost of financing for aircraft economic evaluation and decision of lease versus purchase. They propose extension of adjusted present value and show that equity NPV demonstrates the overall returns of the project from a shareholder perspective. Papapostolou, Pouliasis and Kyriakou, 2017 examine and provide evidence on herd behavior in the shipping industry shipping for dry bulk market. Obviously, knowing that herding exists in the capacity expansion or retirement decision may assist in shaping shipping strategies. A future study is needed to identify whether there is a similar practice in the aircraft leasing industry or in the slow introduction of Russian, Chinese and Japanese narrow body aircraft. Wei and Hansen, 2007 develop game-theoretic competition models to determine both aircraft size and service frequency to maximize profit. They use empirically derived cost function and market share model, which are calibrated through airlines’ actual cost and market data. Some of the major airlines responded to the penetration of low-cost carriers (LCC) into the market by establishing ‘‘low-cost, no frills’’ divisions (airlines-within-airlines) or sub-models under the same AOC to seek a competitive advantage against LCCs. Lin, 2012 studies these strategies and tries to determine when to retain hub-spoke network or shift to a mixed point-to-point network. Obviously these findings are important to determine what portion of the current fleet can be allocated to new LCC division. Listes and Dekker, 2005 consider the stochastic nature of passenger demands while applying a dynamic allocation of the fleet’s capacity to the flight schedule. They show that scenario aggregation– based approach can detect situations where it is more profitable to expand the fleet as well as cases where the fleet, based on deterministic estimates, should actually be replaced by larger planes. Yao, Ergun, Johnson, Schultz and Singleton, 2008 discuss strategic planning issues, such as, aircraft maintenance, crew swapping, demand increase and differentiation in the fractional jet ownership models. Although, there are no fractional ownership practice in the commercial airline business, wet leasing or sub leasing practices may be re-studied under the joint ownership. Aircraft Fleet Management by Quantitative Methods 2. Method Using the integer linear modeling approach adopted by Bazargan and Hartman, 2012, we designed a new model to address the issues that over simplified or complicated the problem. Our approach will be to take the case of the Low Cost Carrier, as in the approach by Bazargan and Hartman, 2012, and therefore keep some of the simplifications they made (such as the ignorance of wetlease option), operating a single type of narrow body aircraft. This is typical of Low Cost Carrier operations as part of their business model to reduce costs through fleet standardization (mostly maintenance costs but also affects parts supply and purchase costs). For data collection and case study, we use a low cost carrier based in Istanbul, Turkey to design and validate our model. 2.1Model Development In the case of the LCC in question, only one type of aircraft was used in the fleet. This is in accordance with what we were expecting as is typical in this business segment. The model is to consider two options for delivery: buy (purchase) or lease (operational). We know that the cost function will be comprised of the either the purchase (PC) cost or the lease cost (LC) and the operational (OCa) costs for operating the aircraft. For the purposes of this model, we take OC as a total, including the fuel, crew and maintenance costs of operating the aircraft for 1 year. This data is easily accessible from the LCC’s operational data. If the aircraft is sold/parted out, there will be a positive cash flow into the model and thus will be taken out of the cost function. Furthermore, at the end of the planning horizon (T), at time T2, any remaining lease periods will continue on to the next planning horizon and can be taken out of the current model as a positive cash flow (since the airline will not be making lease payments for the remaining lease beyond time T). 2.2Assumptions Aircraft considered for purchase is only new aircraft. Although some operators buy second-hand aircraft, this is region specific and also usually not preferred by LCCs. The purchase cost (PC) is taken as the most recent price offers from the manufacturer of the selected aircraft type by the LCC. Aircraft considered for lease are taken as being at a quarter of their typical operational age of 24 years (Jiang, 2013), i.e. 6 years of age. The typical age is taken as the maximum age of aircraft allowed in the fleet (A) as well. Operational lease periods (LP) is taken as 6 years as the age of aircraft considered for lease (La) is 6 year old aircraft; typically lease periods for new aircraft are 8 or 12 years, and lease periods for other aircraft are shorter ("Best industry lease practice for aircraft lease transitions", Issue 110). The lease cost (LCa) is a function of aircraft age and is available through analyzing past data of the lease offerings to the LCC. As the LCC is currently in operation, there will be aircraft currently in their fleet and also aircraft incoming from previous commitments and lease agreements made. The time these will leave the fleet are represented by IOt2. Demand (Dt) is forecasted over the planning horizon by the LCC’s network planning and scheduling department's activities and is assumed to be an accurate forecast (as when compared to the industry estimates of the manufacturers as well as air transport associations). Salvage (NSat) is considered only after half of the serviceable life of the aircraft has been accomplished (mS=12). The salvage/sale (SVa) cost is provided by the LCC and is available through past data on aircraft sales accomplished. 2.3Decision Variables The most obvious decision variable is the number of aircraft to be purchased, leased and salvaged (with age a) at time t, which are denoted as NPt, NLt, and NSat respectively. There are also two indirect decision variables; the number of aircraft of age a purchased and leased at time t, Pat and Lat respectively. Abdullah Enes Bolat, Fahrettin Eldemir 2.4The Mathematical Model Using the above, we have come up with the below model to represent our fleet management problem. 1. Purchased aircraft comes 1 year after order; 2. No purchased aircraft enters at the beginning of the horizon; 3. Owned aircraft this year is made of purchased last year minus the number sold this year; 4. Leased aircraft this year at age a is sum of leased A/C in previous years until age a; 5. All aircraft in fleet (purchased, leased or what is on hand) must meet the demand; 6. No sale of aircraft in the initial year; 7. No sale of aircraft until minimum salvage age mS; s.t. 3. Results CPLEX Studio IDE 12.7.1 optimization software was used to program the model. Running the model yielded an optimum result with a cost of $20,442,499,000 over the 24 year planning horizon. The model required the acquisition (purchase) of 65 aircraft and lease of 131 aircraft. Table 1 below displays the number of Aircraft purchased and the purchase period. Similarly, Table 2 displays the number of Aircraft leased and the lease period. Meanwhile Table 3 shows the number of aircraft purchased and leased throughout the planning horizon. Table 1. Aircraft purchased and the time of purchase T NP T NP 1 25 9 3 2 3 10 5 3 3 11 10 5 2 13 5 7 4 14 5 Table 2. Aircraft leased and time of lease T NL T NL 2 1 19 10 14 5 20 35 15 5 21 13 16 5 22 17 17 5 23 30 18 5 Aircraft Fleet Management by Quantitative Methods Table 3. Aircraft Purchased and Leased over the planning horizon T NP NL T NP NL 1 25 0 13 5 0 2 3 1 14 5 5 3 3 0 15 0 5 4 0 0 16 0 5 5 2 0 17 0 5 6 0 0 18 0 5 7 4 0 19 0 10 8 0 0 20 0 35 9 3 0 21 0 13 10 5 0 22 0 17 11 10 0 23 0 30 12 0 0 24 0 0 Table 4 below shows the age of salvaged aircraft and the period of the planning horizon they were salvaged in. The aircraft sold are highlighted for ease of view. 4. Discussion It is obvious that the model favors buying over leasing at the beginning of the horizon whereas the opposite is true midway towards the end of the horizon. However, the appearance of a single aircraft being leased in the second period is interesting. It can be inferred that the model attempts to employ purchased aircraft to meet a certain portion of long term demand, and lease options to meet the remaining demand outstanding that occurs particularly towards the end of the horizon due to the projected growth in the market. The model reacts well to the salvage function, and actually makes use of purchased aircraft as much as possible. The only aircraft that are close to mS are those sold due to the end of the planning horizon (T=24 and 25). This indicates that the purchasing and lease cost of other aircraft outweighed the cost of operating these aircrafts throughout their usable life. Table 4. Occurrence over the planning horizon Period T 21 22 23 24 25 1 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 0 0 7 0 0 0 0 0 8 0 0 0 0 0 9 0 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 0 11 0 0 0 0 0 12 0 0 0 0 5 13 0 0 0 0 5 14 0 0 0 10 0 Age a Abdullah Enes Bolat, Fahrettin Eldemir 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 24 00000 Furthermore, the large number of leases, especially towards the end of the planning horizon, are most likely the result of allowing the remaining lease payments to be deducted at the end of the lease period from the cost of lease. However, the lease is not being terminated and as the operation of the LCC will continue beyond the planning horizon, coupled with the fact that demand for air travel is expected to healthily and steadily grow in the region that the LCC is currently operating in, this situation is not really an issue. In fact, it would be interesting to see how the model reacts to having so many leased aircraft at the beginning of the next planning horizon. A dynamic modeling approach may be used to use the results of the initial planning horizon as the inputs (initialization conditions) of the next. Furthermore, operational leases are not the only type of lease available in the market. Of particular note is the "wet lease", where an aircraft is available with its crew ready to fly, typically for shorter lease durations (3-4 years). The disadvantage of this type of lease particularly for LCC operations is that the cabin is typically not in the LCC standard (high density cabin) and thus, lowers the volume of passengers per flight and the short lease duration does not allow for cost effective modification of the cabin. However, if and when the model is applied for a traditional operator, the wet lease option can easily be incorporated into the model. Although it is typical for many LCCs to use a single fleet type for cost reduction purposes, using different aircraft for different flights as applicable strengthens the bargaining power of airlines. Therefore, traditional airlines typically have a mix of fleet types. This is also due to the fact that traditional airlines fly long-haul flights as well as short-haul flights, so a single fleet type alone does not meet the demand or cost-minimization requirements. Hence, when considering traditional carriers, additional fleet types will need to be considered. 5. Further Research Directions This model ignores the flexibility in terms of lease options. In practical application, any number of lease periods are possible as this depends on a number of factors such as the period of lease demanded by the airline, the lease period offered by the lessor, the demand in the market (both current and projected) for leased aircraft, conditions of the lease, etc. However, the most commonly seen periods, besides that taken in the model, are 8 and 12 years ("Best industry lease practice for aircraft lease transitions", Issue 110). Since the case study was performed with a LCC and the model designed for the specific needs and situation of the LCC, certain restrictions were placed on the lease options. Lease age was one of these restrictions in our model; a 6 year old aircraft is not difficult to find in the lease market and is at a good trade-off point for operational cost vs lease cost. Furthermore, with a lease period of 6 years, the redelivery occurs at the 12 year maintenance check, allowing the heaviest maintenance check to coincide with the redelivery check (which is typically requested by the lessors). However, though it is quite possible to find a 6 year old A/C in the market, an 8 and 12 year old A/C is as, if not more, common due to the fact that these aircraft may be coming out of a lease from an operator that leased the A/C when brand new. The model should therefore be expanded to allow for 8 and 12 year old aircraft to be leased; this will also allow the model to be more flexible so that it can be applied in the case of a regular Aircraft Fleet Management by Quantitative Methods operator. Therefore, more data needs to be collected on past availability of different lease options and the current market prices for such options today (as well as current availability). Some of the other shortcomings we saw in the model by Bazargan and Hartman, 2012 can also be addressed in the future work, such as variable lease and operational costs. Of particular note is the maintenance costs, which vary based on the time and application of task cards. Certain maintenance events are scheduled early, which impacts the maintenance program of the aircraft at later stages of its life, for example. 6. Conclusions We have analyzed the current market situation as reported by various industry leaders and layers. It is clear that the airline industry is expected to grow steadily worldwide, with emerging markets expected to play an important role in driving the industry for the next 20 years. Meanwhile, there is sadly a dearth in academic literature regarding the management of aircraft fleet of airlines. We have analyzed what is available in literature to the best of our ability and examined an integer linear model that is suitable for application in our case study. We analyzed and noted the weaknesses of the model in literature. We then developed our own model that made certain improvements to the model in literature but did not answer all of the weaknesses noted. Running this model in our case study showed that our model uses both purchasing and leasing to answer an increasing demand. We then proposed a plan of action for future research that covers the shortcomings of our model. 7. References Airbus, Airbus Global Market Forecast 2017-2037, retrieved from: http://www.airbus.com/content/dam/corporatetopics/publications/backgrounders/Airbus_Global_Market_Forecast_20172036_Growing_Horizons_full_book.pdf Aircraft Commerce, Best industry lease practice for aircraft lease transitions Issue No 110 February/March 2017, retrieved from: http://www.iba.aero/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/AircraftCommerce-best-industry-practice-for-aircraft-lease-transitions.pdf Alcacer, J. & Çekin, E. (2015). Turkish Airlines: Widen Your World. Harvard Business School, 9-716408. https://www.hbs.edu/faculty/Pages/item.aspx?num=49517 Ansaripoor, A. H., Fernando, S. & Liret, A. (2014). A risk management system for sustainable fleet replacement. European Journal of Operational Research, 237, 701-712. doi:10.1016/j.ejor.2014.02.006 Bazargan, M. & Hartman, J. (2012). Aircraft replacement strategy: Model and analysis. Journal of Air Transport Management, 25, 26-29. doi:10.1016/j.jairtraman.2012.05.001 Bhaskara, V (2016, January 26) ANALYSIS: A320neo vs. 737 MAX: Airbus is leading (Slightly) – Part I. Airways News. Retrieved from http://www.think-dash.com Bish, E. K., Suwandechochai, R. & Bish, D. R. (2004). Strategies for Managing the Flexible Capacity in the Airline Industry. Naval Research Logistics 51, 654-685. doi: 10.1002/nav.20019 Boeing, Current Market Outlook 2012. Retrieved from: http://libraryonline.erau.edu/online-fulltext/books-online/Boeing_Current_Market_Outlook_2012.pdf Boeing, Commercial Market Outlook 2017. Retrieved from: http://www.boeing.com/resources/boeingdotcom/commercial/market/current-market-outlook2017/assets/downloads/2017-cmo-6-19.pdf Dursun, M. E. (2011). The rise and competitive advantages of Turkish Airlines. (Unpublished master thesis). Cranfield University, England. Forsberg, D. (2012). Aircraft Retirement Trends & Outlook. Retrieved from http://avolon.aero/wp/wpcontent/uploads/2012/09/Avolon_Zep_1_2012_AircraftRetirementTrends.pdf Gibson, W. & Morrell, P. (2004). Theory and practice in aircraft financial evaluation. Journal of Air Transport Management 10, 427–433. doi:10.1016/j.jairtraman.2004.07.002 Abdullah Enes Bolat, Fahrettin Eldemir Hsu, C. I., Li, H. C., Liu, S. C. & Chao, C. C. (2011). Aircraft replacement scheduling-A dynamic programming approach. Transportation Research Part E 47, 41-61. doi:10.1016/j.tre.2010.07.006 IATA (2016, December 8) Another Strong Year for Airline Profits in 2017. Retrieved from: http://www.iata.org/pressroom/pr/Pages/2016-12-08-01.aspx IATA (2017, December) Fact Sheet-Fuel. [Fact Sheet] Retrieved from: http://www.iata.org/pressroom/facts_figures/Pages/index.aspx Jiang, H. (2013, March) Key Findings on Airplane Economic Life. [White paper] Retrieved from: http://www.boeing.com/assets/pdf/commercial/aircraft_economic_life_whitepaper.pdf Lin, M. H. (2012). Airlines-within-airlines strategies and existence of low-cost carriers. Transportation Research Part E 48, 637-651. doi:10.1016/j.tre.2011.11.004 Listes, O. & Dekker, R. (2005). A scenario aggregation based approach for determining a robust airline fleet composition. TRANSPORTATION SCIENCE 39(3), 367-382. doi:10.1287/trsc.1040.0097 Papapostolou, N. C., Pouliasis, P. K. & Kyriakou, I. (2017). Herd behavior in the drybulk market: an empirical analysis of the decision to invest in new and retire existing fleet capacity. Transportation Research Part E 104, 36-51. doi:10.1016/j.tre.2017.05.007 Wei, W. & Hansen, M. (2007). Airlines Competition in Aircraft Size and Service Frequency in Duopoly Markets. Transportation Research Part E 43, 409-424. doi:10.1016/j.tre. 2006.01.002 Yao, Y., Ergun, Ö., Johnson, E., Schultz, W. & Singleton, J. M. (2008). Strategic planning in fractional aircraft ownership programs. European Journal of Operational Research 189, 526–539. doi:10.1016/j.ejor.2007.05.034 Tourism Higher Education Experiences of a Leading Country: The Case of Turkey Rahman Temizkan, Duran Cankul, Gizem S. Sarikaya 1.Introduction The tourism sector has grown rapidly all over the world. Turkey, the number of international tourist arrivals and tourism revenues in the ranking is a country that has managed to be among the first 10 countries in the world. Especially after 1980, has grown rapidly with the promotion law, as soon as possible to serve the millions of tourists was built with a capacity of many tourism businesses. This capacity expansion has created a need for qualified labor. To meet this demand, the number of tourism education institutions has also increased rapidly. However, a significant part of the workforce with a qualified diploma has not entered the sector and has left the sector.The sector continues to whine about the lack of qualified personnel and the lack of human resources. The reason for this situation is that there are no legal regulations based on diplomas related to tourism professions, and that tourism businesses are covered by short courses or those who have never been educated in tourism. Therefore, it can be said that the investments made for tourism education, the educated and employed academicians and the labor given can not produce the anticipated compensation. Tourism graduates who do not enter the sector can find jobs in a wide variety of sectors based on the training they receive. However, it is necessary to ensure that the tourism sector in which tourism diplomas are employed because of the strategic importance and where the state's resources are planned to go. This also Turkey's research at the undergraduate level decision makers to evaluate the experience it has gained in tourism education policies to be followed in this regard aims to shed light on the development. Turkey's policy makers begins to give importance to the tourism sector in recent years to know the results of this experience will enable them to make more informed decisions are important research. 2. Tourism and Human Resources Tourism sector has been growing and developing as a social and economic activity in the last century (Sharpley, 2009). Rapid development in the mobility of people, both locally and internationally, makes tourism a large and diverse sector (Goeldner, Ritchie & McIntosh, 2000). The tourism sector has become an important sector of economic activity in many developing and developed countries of the world (Baum & Szivas, 2007) and is one of the world's largest and fastest growing areas with globalization (Veijola, 2010). The tourism sector is not just about restaurants and hotels, as most people think. Transportation services are made up of many organizations and organizations under the heading of businesses and accommodation operations in destinations (Career View, 2006; Hayes & Ninemeier, 2009). Hence, the tourism sector is a global business (Lipman, 1997) that grows faster than other industries (Winberg, 1997) as the greatest economic power that moves the relevant indicators in local and national economies (Tesone, 2004; Baum & Szivas, 2002; Mayaka, 2011) and is in a constant trend of growth and development. Along with this growth and development, the tourism sector also provides employment opportunities for millions of people, officially and unofficially as a key to the global economy (Odabaşı, 2002; Lohmann & Jafari, 1996; Lipman, 1997; Gee, 1997; Winberg, 2002; Solà, 2002; Sharpley & Telfer, 2002; Wall & Mathıeson, 2006; Baum & Szivas, 2007; Ross & Pryce, 2010; Mihalič, 2011; Pizam & Shanı, 2011; Baum, 2015; Wwtc, 2015). Tourism is an important sector that offers potential employment opportunities around the world (Winberg, 2002; Mihalič, 2011). However, the works in the tourism sector have changed qualitatively today compared to the past. At this point, the fact that the tourism sector offers employment opportunities in such large quantities, the increase in the quality of the work done, reveals the importance of the human factor that constitutes the employment, in other words, the workforce that delivers the service (Baum, 2015). It is concerned with the interaction in the tourism sector with respect to guest-service-related service encounters (Hartline & Ferrell, 1996). The quality of the guest worker interaction, known as service conflicts, is defined as an important means of ensuring strategic Rahman Temizkan, Duran Cankul, Gizem S. Sarikaya competitive advantage (Kelley, 1992, Mattila & Enz, 2002; Solnet, 2007). Tourism laboring and guest working relationships require face-to-face communication (Haven-Tang & Jones, 2008; Hayes & Ninemeier, 2009). The quality of the services provided in tourism is directly related to the people and the people are the people (Ross & Pryce, 2010; Erbaş, Cankül & Temizkan, 2013). Human resources in the tourism sector are crucial for the successful delivery of tourism services and for the successful execution of business (Baum, 2007; Baum & Szivas, 2007; Ross & Pryce, 2010) and all stakeholders in this regard are unanimous (Lohmann & Jafari, 1996). Tourism sector is different from other manufacturing sectors. Make the product come out at the beginning of everything. The effect of employee-client relationships can not be defined or measured in material terms. In the first encounter, the employee's have greeted performance very big prefix. Here the employee's ability to continue dialogue and process continues to stand out. Moreover, it should not be forgotten that the products and services presented in the tourism sector are produced and consumed at the same point. Finally, the shelf life of the products offered is limited, which means they can disappear immediately. It is possible to re-present a meal served. But if you do not say "welcome" for the first time, it will not be possible to compensate. Because of these reasons, tourism is separated from other sectors. The more abstract the products offered by an institution are, the more vital the knowledge and skills of service providers are (Ross & Pryce, 2010). Hence, competing and succeeding in the tourism sector, regardless of where the world is, depends on the quality of the human resource employed (Kelley, 1992; MacVicar & Rodger, 1996; Lohman & Jafari, 1996; Jafari & Solà, 1996; Jenkins, 1997; Singh, 1997; Leslie & Richardson, 2000; Mattila & Enz, 2002; Gee, 2002; Hawkins, 2002; Mayoka & King, 2002; Conlin & Baum, 2003; Baum, 2007; Baum & Szivas, 2007; Solnet, 2007; Singh, Hu & Roehl, 2007; Haven-Tang & Jones, 2008; Ross & Pryce, 2010; Erbaş et al., 2013; Temizkan, Erbaş & Cankül, 2014; Erbaş, Temizkan & Cankül, 2015; Baum, 2015; Temizkan, 2015; Erbaş, Temizkan & Cankül, 2016; Erbaş, Cankül & Temizkan 2016; Cankl, 2017). In this respect, the way to live a good experience at a high quality and efficient service and a holiday depends on qualified human power. The way to obtain qualified work force is only possible with tourism education. (Jafari & Solà, 1996; Mayaka & King, 2002). 3. Tourism Training and Turkey The growing and multifaceted nature of the tourism industry, the increasingly prominent nature of its professionalism and staff, has led to the emergence of a need for training as a pressure element. This pressure has manifested itself in all levels from the lowest level to the highest level (Ritchie, 2000). The labor force requirements in tourism are rapidly changing. Qualified personnel are needed to provide quality products and services (Jafari & Solà, 1996). Therefore, a wider education and training programs have been established to achieve these challenges (Ritchie, 2000), and tourism education and training is also rapidly being promoted, as the increasing importance of tourism as one of the world's most important economic, social and environmental forces has begun to spread and become compulsory (Cooper, Shepherd & Westlake, 1996; Mayaka & King, 2002; Hudson, 2011). Tourism education continued to grow rapidly around the world in the mid-twentieth century, especially in terms of educational institutions etmiştir (Cooper, 2002; Mihalič, 2011). Along with the increased interest in tourism education by both the public and private sectors, the number of institutions providing tourism education at all levels, from secondary education to graduate level, has increased (Mayaka & Akama, 2007). The output of this change has also manifested itself with extraordinary growth (Airey, 2004). This growth has been accelerated not only by the demands of students and the sector, but also by the support provided by the public (Cooper, 2002). It can be said that the rapid developments in the tourism sector are very effective in the development of the tourism education process. It is observed that developments in the world of tourism education in Turkey that go parallel with the development process of tourism and development of tourism education in Turkey is similar to the history of world tourism training. first tourism education began in 1953 with the opening of tourism vocational courses with the cooperation of national education, youth and sports ministry of culture and tourism ministry in Turkey (Timur, 1992; Demirkol & Çetin, 2014). Tourism education for the first time at the higher education level In the 1965-1966 Tourism Higher Education Experiences of a Leading Country education and training year in Ankara, the tourism and tourism high school in Turkey (Ünlen & Boylu, 2009), the pre-graduate level tourism education in the 1970s, (Doğan, 1992; Özdoğan & Çavuş, 2009; Boylu & Arslan, 2013) and finally, the tourism education at the graduate level started at the tourism institute established in 1964 in Izmir (Ünlnen & Boylu, 2005). The incentives given in the aftermath of the 1980s and the start of activities in the country of foreign investments have been accompanied by the rapid development in the end tourism sector (Kocaoğlu, 1992; Tuna, 2002; Kaltan, 2002). After the 1980s, the increase in the number of tourism enterprises increased the demand for qualified human power (Grdal, 2002) the incentives seem to have increased in tourism training institutions(Kozak, 1992) and education has accelerated at all levels (Gndzalp, 1992). It has gradually developed over a period of 30 years (Demirkol and Çetin, 2014). As of 2018, tourism education at all levels are given Turkey and since the sector continues to grow, a large number of schools offering tourism education are being opened for the training of qualified human resources to be employed in tourism businesses. The number of students and graduates is constantly increasing. Table 1. Students and Graduates in Tourism Education Institutions at Undergraduate Level by Years Year Number ofstudents undergraduate Numbergraduates of undergraduate 2012-2013 39.555 4.760 2013-2014 51.260 5.860 2014-2015 61.867 8.236 2015-2016 78.477 9.581 2016-2017 82.884 10.742 2017-2018 84.004 - According to Table 1, in the 2012-2013 education year, the number of undergraduate students in the field of tourism is 4.760 and the number of graduates is 39.555. When the number of undergraduate students studying in the field of tourism in the 2016-2017 education year is examined, the number of graduates is 82,884 and it is 10.742. As a result, there is a serious increase in the number of students and graduates in tourism education at the undergraduate level. However, research conducted in Turkey that persons without tourism education of the vast majority of employees in the tourism sector (Kozak, 1992; Agaoglu, 1992; Kizilirmak, 2000; Yeşiltaş, Özturk & Hemmington, 2010; Yanardağ & Avcı, 2012), work in the sector of the graduates have received tourism education (Hacıoğlu, 1985, Pavesic & Brymer 1990, Aydos, 1992, Kusluvan & Kusluvan, 2000, Birdir, 2002; Üngren & Ehtiyar, 2009). 4.Method In this study; Measurement Selection and Placement Center (ÖSYM) 2017 prepared by the University Entrance Exam and higher education programs and quotas placement results manuals examining, student quotas in the tourism education at the undergraduate level in Turkey and aimed to assess the occupancy rate of these quotas numerically. In the study, content analysis method was used from qualitative research methods. Content analysis method with graduate-level universities in providing education about tourism in Turkey, examined quotas and placement results of faculties and colleges, places the chapter placement results, was transformed into an additional placement results and listed the remaining quota information and statements. 5. Findings In this part of the study, the quotas of the departments in tourism higher education and the findings about placement results were included. Details are given below. Rahman Temizkan, Duran Cankul, Gizem S. Sarikaya Tablo 2. Quota and Placement Results of Tourism Management Departments Depart ment Gene ral Quota Gene ral Compacti ng Gene ral Empty Additio nal Placement Quota Additio nal Placement Additio nal Empty Tourism Management Tourism Management (English) 2143 347 1367 270 776 77 941 98 62 8 879 90 Tourism Management( EE) Tourism and Hotel Management Tourism and Hotel Management (EE) Tourism and Hotel Management (English) 1227 255 140 329 261 167 42 105 966 92 98 224 982 95 107 162 17 11 4 5 965 84 103 157 Tourism Management and Hotel Management 666 515 159 254 33 221 Tourism Management and Hotel Management (EE) 340 148 196 227 9 218 Hotel Management 34 23 11 0 0 0 (English) General Total 5481 2898 2583 2866 149 2717 Looking at Table 2, it is seen that 8347 quotas were provided for the programs under the departments of tourism management, including general and additional for the year 2017. The settlement rate for these quotas is 36,5%. The remaining quota rate is 63,5%. The quotas of more than half of the departments related to tourism management are empty and not preferred. Tourism Higher Education Experiences of a Leading Country Table 3. Quota and Placement Results of the Departments of Hospitality Management nt Departme Gen eral Quota Gen eral Compact ing Gen eral Empty Additi onal placement quota Additi onal placement Additi onal empty Accommod ation 733 566 176 262 60 202 Management Accommod ation Management 1000 8 992 1020 0 1020 (Open Ed.) Accommod ation Management (EE) 470 155 319 344 7 337 Accommod ation and Tourism 30 9 21 22 0 22 Management (English) General Total 2233 738 1508 1648 67 1581 The programs under the departments of hospitality management were given 3881 quotas, including general and additional, for the year 2017. The settlement rate for these quotas is 20,7%. The remaining quota is 79,3%. Approximately 80% of departments related to accommodation management are left empty and not preferred by students. Table 4. Quota and Placement Results of Travel Management and Tourist Guidance Departments Depart ment Gene ral Quota Gene ral Compacti Gene ral Empty Additio nal placement Additio nal placement Additio nal empty ng quota Travel Management 180 87 93 107 5 102 Travel Management( 120 3 117 121 0 121 EE) Travel Management and Tourism 351 185 166 187 6 181 Guidance Travel Management and Tourism 150 1 149 155 0 155 Guidance (EE) Tourism Guidance 943 943 0 88 56 32 Rahman Temizkan, Duran Cankul, Gizem S. Sarikaya Tourism Guidance (EE) 210 210 0 16 15 1 Tourism Guidance 30 25 5 8 3 5 (English) General Total 1984 1454 530 682 85 597 According to Table 4, it is seen that 2,666 quotas are provided for the programs under the sections of travel management and tourism guidance, including general and additional for 2017 year. The settlement rate for these quotas is 57,7%. The remaining quota is 42,3%. More than half of the quotas of departments related to travel management and tourism guidance are filled. It can be said that these sections are preferred by students. Table 5. Gastronomy and Culinary Arts Departments Quotation and Placement Results Gene Additio Additio Additio Depart Gene ral Gene nal nal nal empty ment ral Quota Compacti ral Empty placement placement ng quota Gastrono 201 166 35 56 6 50 my Gastrono my (English) 40 30 10 18 7 11 Gastrono 1507 1503 4 144 67 77 my and Culinary Arts Gastrono 440 440 0 28 26 2 my and Culinary Arts (EE) Gastrono 330 289 41 82 9 73 my and Culinary Arts (English) General 2518 2428 90 328 115 213 Total The programs under the sections of Gastronomy and Culinary Arts were given 2,846 quotas, including general and supplementary, for the year 2017. The settlement rate for these quotas is 89,3%. The remaining quota is 10,7%. It is observed that about 90% of the sections on gastronomy and culinary arts are filled. It is possible to say that these sections are the most preferred departments by students. 6. Conclusions and Recommendations Based on the information in the literature, it is seen that the most important factor in the development and success of the tourism sector is qualified human resources (Kelley, 1992; Lohman & Jafari, 1996; Jenkins, 1997; Leslie & Richardson, 2000; Mattila & Enz, 2002; Gee, 2002; Hawkins, 2002; Mayoka & King, 2002; Conlin & Baum, 2003; Szivas, Riley & Airey, 2003; Baum, 2007; Solnet, 2007; Singh, Hu & Roehl, 2007; Haven-Tang & Jones, 2008; Ross & Pryce, 2010; Erbaş et al., 2013; Temizkan & Cankül, 2015; Baum, 2015; Temizkan, 2015; Erbaş et al.,, 2016; Cankül, Erbaş & Temizkan, 2017). The way to obtain qualified human resources is only possible with tourism education (Jafari & Solà, 1996; Mayaka & King, 2002). States have established a large number of educational institutions aimed at educating the skilled labor required by the sector and to carry out tourism education at the secondary and higher Tourism Higher Education Experiences of a Leading Country education level. Turkey Republic state tourism training institutions have established their same method tourism diploma which qualified workforce to meet the needs associated with the rapid growth of the industry since the 1980s. However, as the factors such as the training of human resources, the construction of educational institutions and the training of trainers take time, the growth rate of tourism education has not reached the growth rate of the sector. After 2010, when the numbers, capacities, number of students and number of graduates of tourism education institutions are taken into account, it is seen that qualified labor force needs can be met with these educational institutions. Therefore, there is no need for trainings such as short-term courses and certification activities to close the vacancy of qualified labor force that the industry has in the past. However, a significant part of the qualified workforce with a diploma has not entered the sector and has left the sector. The scientific work has been put forward (Cankl, 2016). As a result of this situation, the results of this research support this situation. Research results have shown that the needs of the tourism sector in Turkey on a much higher capacity is created, quotas were left empty, the demand for higher education shows that tourism also fell. It is not possible to prevent and improve the problems experienced in the field of tourism that the tourism system is not organized based on the tourism professions, laws and diplomas. In this context, the human resources of the Ministry of Tourism and tourism enterprises should be fully funded from tourism education institutions in order to evaluate the investments made to the institutions providing tourism education effectively and productively. In this way, the problem with the qualification that the labor force in the tourism sector and tourism related public institutions in Turkey will be no definitive solution. Investments made in tourism training institutions will be efficiently and effectively assessed. Diplomates not the only sector in the central and provincial organizations of the tourism ministry officials, experts and provincial cultural tourism director of the industries providing employment in such tasks will be opened in front of the public working in harmony and Turkey will be increased competitiveness of the tourism sector (Temizkan & Cankl, 2015 Cankl, 2016; Cankl et al., 2017). 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Similar to the influences of military, political and social leaders, leaders of organizations have also been recognized as important figures for centuries in terms of the profitability and continuity of their organizations. Therefore, various leadership theories have been proposed with regard to managerial (administrative) skills of organizations. In a sense, these have been theories involving the zeitgeist of the period when they were proposed, the existing economic, social, commercial and administrative relationships and basic administrative rules and transmission of them to future centuries. The second half of the 20th century, the last quarter in particular, corresponds to years when mankind began to make significant progress in educational, economic, social, commercial and health fields. These years were at the same time those when new administrative and leadership theories were developed in order to solve emerging leadership questions. One of these new administrative (managerial) styles concerns the servant leadership theory. Although the servant leadership theory was introduced into the relevant literature by Greenleaf in1970, it became one of the theories about which several studies have been conducted in the past ten years especially to explore it in its various aspects. When this situation is investigated in terms of the tourism sector, it is observed that the actors in the sector overlap significantly with one another with regard to the features they possess because “service”, which is proposed as an asset in the service enterprises, is performed by people. At the same time, the fact that external environmental factors in service enterprises are in a constant state of change requires that the enterprises adjust to these changes in order to survive. In addition, service enterprises possess an organizational image that will be shaped up in accordance with the quality of the services offered and customer satisfaction. Therefore, it is important that desires and demands of employees at service enterprises be taken into consideration, urgent needs of employees be met, their personal and professional developments be ensured and they be encouraged for continuous learning (Çevik & Kozak, 2010, p. 80-85). This can be implemented through servant leaders who are clearly focused on the needs, development and progress of their members. The focus of servant leadership on the needs of members distinguishes it from other leadership theories because servant leadership is concentrated on a kind of leadership that is stripped of its own interests and antagonizes greed. Explaining the relationship between the servant leader and their members, Mayer states that servant leaders focus on three fundamental human needs (autonomy, relationship, proficiency) in organizations. Servant leaders allow for their members to perform their tasks within the framework of these needs and want their members to develop feelings of confidence and mastery and point out that servant leadership will increase job satisfaction and organizational performance (Mayer, 2010, p. 148-153). The concept of job satisfaction is one of the most challenging elements used in studies concerning industrial relations (Locke, 1976; Seashore & Taber, 1975, p. 333) and has reached today being one of the major topics of interest in the field of organizational behavior as an attitude of employees (Luthans, 1995, p. 125). For, although the topic of job satisfaction refers especially to individuals’ attitudes 5 Article based on the doctoral dissertation of Neriman Çelik, entitled” The Effect Of The Servant Leadership Perceptions On Organizational Identification And Job Satisfaction In Accommodation Enterprises: The Case Of Konya” Selcuk University, which is issued in 2017 under the counseling of Proffesor. Dr. Aykut Bedük Neriman celik, Aykut Beduk concerning their working life (Ciarnienˇe et al., 2010, p. 978), it has tended to cover fields of research of not only industrial relations abut also psychology (Fincham & Rhodes, 1999, p. 155) and the concept has been included in numerous articles and theses ranging from studies by Locke, who authored the best-known work in the field, to those at the present time. Indeed, Oshagbemi put the number of these studies at 3.350 (Oshagbemi, 1999, p. 329). Having written the most common study in the field of job satisfaction, Locke defines job satisfaction as a positive emotional state that an individual feels after evaluating the task s/he has performed (Locke, 1976, p. 2). In his study, Locke described job satisfaction as individuals’ being highly content with their jobs (Čiarnienė et al., 2010, p. 978) and a general expression of positive feelings they feel towards their jobs (Ensher et al., 2001, p. 56; Çelik, 2011, p. 8) and defined it as a pleasant emotional state arising from an evaluation of the task when an individual attains to or facilitates job values (Spector, 1996, p. 214-215). When the definition of Locke, who is the most frequently cited person with regard to job satisfaction, is taken as a basis, it can be argued that job satisfaction is a result of an act between an individual and their environment, and a function of the perceived relationship between what an individual wants to derive from his job and what is obvious or what he proposes (Wagner III & Hollenbeck, 1998, p. 107). Job satisfaction expresses an attitude originating from purposeful behavior; attainment of job satisfaction begins with motivation and a change is made in a person’s level of job satisfaction (Özgen et al., 2002, p. 337). Some organizational behaviors observed in organizations are thought to be a result of job satisfaction or job dissatisfaction and various researchers have made specific efforts to demonstrate that job satisfaction is closely related to behaviors that have a significant effect on the welfare of organizations. These efforts are considered to be important due to the potential worrisome effects of job satisfaction on variables in organizations (Spector, 1996, p. 232). Negative effects on an organization can be documented when the level of satisfaction with the job is low. When the results of studies conducted in recent years are examined, numerous positive effects are observed such as that individuals with high levels of job satisfaction have, compared with other employees, better physical and mental health, can more easily learn duties related to a new task, help co-workers and customers, are more eager to cooperate; also a reduction in industrial accidents and complaints is recorded (Luthans, 1995, p. 128-13). Although such discourses exist concerning job satisfaction, the topic of job satisfaction may also be a subject that is not treated very seriously. Therefore, it becomes difficult for managers in such organizations to understand and develop attitudes and emotions about employees’ ideas regarding their jobs and in organizations where high levels of job dissatisfaction prevails (Wagner III & Hollenbeck, 1998, p. 107), it is reflected in the form of changing jobs, escape, raising one’s voice, attachment and indifference (Silah, 2005, p. 128). When the above explanations are taken into consideration, it is observed that different results emerge with regard to job satisfaction in organizations. Therefore, one needs to determine the existing situation in order to be able to reduce effects of job satisfaction or dissatisfaction in organizations and change the situation to the benefit of organizations. According to Greenberg and Baron, when the negative results of the aforementioned job dissatisfaction are taken into consideration, first a need arises to find ways of increasing satisfaction and preventing dissatisfaction with the job, and in this regard suggestions should be made by asking the question What can be done to increase job satisfaction because satisfaction expresses an end desired by individuals. Suggestions are made such as paying fair wages to employees, raising the quality of supervision, bringing organizational power under control and employing people in jobs that are commensurate with their interests (Greenberg & Baron, 1997, p. 188-189). 2. Effects of Perceptions of Servant Leadership on Job Satisfaction Leadership is an enchanting story composed of theories developed with regard to nature of human behavior and ways of gaining power and influence for people in organizations (Brownell, 2010, p. 363). Historical development of the concept of leadership dates far back to the 1300s. Although it was first The Effect Of The Servant Leadership Perceptions On Job Satisfaction referred to as a pathfinder or beacon in that period, the beginning of the scientific use of the term leadership in the relevant literature took place in the late 20th century (Gney, 2012, p. 34). Given that leadership is defined as a concept that shapes up innumerable groups and organizations such as business, state, life and workspace and is believed to be indispensable for them, the question “What is the factor that makes a leader great?” crosses one’s mind. A charming response to be given would be Great followers!. Although this response may have some relevance, the issue involves a much a more complicated dimension. This complication ends with the emergence of various theories (Robbins, 1997, p. 238). Rise of a new era and the world’s becoming a place that is growing increasingly hard to control and unpredictable and faced with frequent upheavals have caused many tools that served mankind in the past to become useless today and led to the appearance of new models of leadership (Werhane & Morland, 2011, p. 1). Robbins provides a brief account of leadership theories from part to present in the following manner: While initial theories endeavored to find universal leadership qualities possessed by leaders, whereas second stage theories attempt to explain leadership in terms of the behaviors of a leader. However, both of the approaches involve starts that are based on a mistaken and oversimplified understanding of leadership. Therefore, third theories consist of theories that take a constant interest in new theories to explain the inadequacy of models by bringing together the diversity of the research findings of previous leadership theories (Robbins, 1997, p. 238). Where we stand today is that inadequacy of the theories proposed and their failure to meet needs have come to an end with the emergence of new leadership theories. One of the theories among the modern leadership theories is the servant leadership model. A servant leader is a person who takes the lead serving with an innate, inherent desire, harmonizes service with their beliefs and strives to meet others’ priorities (Boyum, 2006, p. 3). Greenleaf, the originator of the theory of servant leadership, was born in Terre Haute, Indiana (the USA) in 1904. The city where he lived closely witnessed the industrial revolution by virtue of his birth date. His father George, who was a technician by profession, was one who liked to serve people and Greenleaf stated in his last writing that the original servant leader he took as an example for himself was his father. Greenleaf began his engineering education at Rose Polytechnic and then transferred to Carleton College in Minnesota and completed his education in Mathematics here in 1926 (Frick, 2016, p. 1). “A servant leader, as was described in Leo, is above all a servant. Leadership begins when a person wants, with a natural inspiration, to serve, to serve before everything else. Then, he or she chooses to act as a leader through a conscious preference. A servant leader is in stark contrast with a person who is first and foremost a leader because maybe in an unusual way he or she needs to reduce the impulse for acquiring power or financial gains” (Greenleaf, 1970, p. 7). Leo, who Greenleaf defines as an extraordinary being, is a person in the novel who fulfils services like carrying suitcases of people consisting of members of Society Brotherhood who took part in the journey each for different purposes, and at the same time is the person who holds all those different people together with his joy and songs. Everything goes smoothly when Leo is accompanying the group. However, all is upset when Leo disappears and although passengers are given written rules describing how they are supposed to act in a such a situation, the group falls into disagreement as to the proper course of action to take and the journey comes to an end; thus, the group fails to complete the journey. One of those who joined the journey (author Hesse) wants to find Leo and write a history of the journey and the society, but since he wants to do this without permission, this constitutes a crime according to the rules of the society. The fact that Leo, who was previously known to be a servant, acts as leader of the society and decides as the chair of the court during the trial of this person, reveals that it was Leo the servant leader who organized the journey and the group (Hesse, 2016, p. 65). How will it be understood by the leader himself and his members (followers) that the leader is indeed the servant leader? On his book Servant Leadership, which was the first of a three-volume series concerning the concept of servant leadership and published in 1970, Greenleaf states that there is no clear and definite answer to this question, but that the net effect which a servant leader will have on people around him through a definition of whether he develops or consumes people around him with Neriman celik, Aykut Beduk his very presence or his description as being an ineffective person and that servant character of the servant leadership must absolutely precede leadership (Greenleaf, 1970). Characteristics of a servant leader and organizational outcomes are in interaction with each other. The need for serving and motivation constitute the foundation of the model and the need for serving is the prioritized and most important attitude for a leader; honesty, justice, integrity and other values which he has internalized significantly affect his behaviors and attitudes (Dierendonck, 2011, p. 1234). 3. Materials and Methods The sample of the study is made up of the employees in the accommodation enterprises operating in the Konya. The number of employees working at accommodation enterprises, who constitute the population of this study, is not known exactly. Therefore, the formula n=z2.(p.q)/e2, which was used by Chi and Qu, (2008), was made use of in our study to determine the size of the sample as the population was unknown and consequently the size of the sample was calculated to be 385 people. After the size of the sample was determined to be 385 people, a total of 620 surveys were distributed by the researcher herself to employees selected according to the convenience sampling method. Of the 420 surveys which were returned by the employees involved in the study, those that were incomplete or returned unanswered were removed from the study and thus 379 surveys (analytical units) which were scientifically eligible were obtained. The rate of return for the surveys was 61.1 %. This rate indicates that the sample represents the population adequately (Retold by Kaplan, 2013, p. 97 from Lewis & Harvey, 2001). The survey method was used in the study as the data collection instrument. A survey developed by Dierendonck and Nuijten (2011, p. 252-255) and adapted to Turkish by Duyan and Van Dierendonck (2014, p. 13) was used to determine perceptions of servant leadership in the study; on the other hand, a survey developed by Hackman and Oldham (1975) and adapted to Turkish by Şeşen and Basım (2010) was used. Simple linear regression analysis was used to test the hypotheses of the study concerning the effects of servant leadership on job satisfaction from the perspective of employees working at accommodation enterprises. Simple linear regression analysis, frequency and percentage, Cronbach’s Alpha are used in the study. Hypothesis 1: Employees’ perceptions of servant leadership affect job satisfaction positively. Hypothesis 1a: The empowerment subdimension of the servant leadership affects job satisfaction positively. Hypothesis 1b: The standing back subdimension of the servant leadership affects job satisfaction. Hypothesis 1c: The accountability subdimension of the servant leadership affects job satisfaction positively. Hypothesis 1d: The forgiveness subdimension of the servant leadership affects job satisfaction positively. Hypothesis 1e: The courage subdimension of the servant leadership affects job satisfaction positively. Hypothesis 1f: The authenticity subdimension of the servant leadership affects job satisfaction positively. Hypothesis 1g: The humility subdimension of the servant leadership affects job satisfaction positively. Hypothesis 1h: The steweardship subdimension of the servant leadership affects job satisfaction positively. 4. Findings According to the results of the demographic, 57% of the participants are male, %43 of the participants are female; %48 of the participants are single, %52 of the participants are married, %68 of the participants are undergraduate, %34,6 of the participants are between the ages of 18-25. Cronbach’s Alpha analysis results are given in Table 1; The Effect Of The Servant Leadership Perceptions On Job Satisfaction Table 1. Cronbach’s Alpha Analysis Results Cronbach’s Alpha Number questions of Servant Leadership 0,941 30 • Empowerment 0,965 7 • Standing Back 0,922 3 • Accountability 0,954 3 • Forgiveness 0,877 3 • Courage 0,909 2 • Authenticity 0,855 4 • Humility 0,909 5 • Stewardship 0,876 3 Job Satisfaction 0,967 5 Pearson correlational analysis of servant leadership and job satisfaction dimensions is presented in Table 2, which is the final result; Table 2. Pearson Correlational Analysis E St Acc Fo C A H S S J mp. and. ount. rgiv. our. uth. um. tew. erv. .Sts. Em 1 p. nd. Sta ,7 09** 1 Acc ount. ,4 65** ,2 56** 1 For giv. ,3 33** ,4 03** -,145** 1 ur. Co ,1 39** ,2 61** -,104* 17* ,1 1 h. Aut ,6 68** ,4 78** 6** ,54 07* ,1 ,1 93** 1 m. Hu ,6 84** ,5 98** 9** ,41 ,2 74** ,2 87** ,7 22** 1 w. Ste ,6 30** ,5 77** 0** ,35 ,2 97** ,2 41** ,6 14** ,7 31** 1 v. Ser ,9 03** ,7 75** 1** ,54 ,4 04** ,3 03** ,8 10** ,8 69** ,7 95** 1 s. J.St ,7 87** ,5 97** 2** ,43 ,2 65** 03* ,1 ,6 84** ,7 29** ,7 18** ,8 21** 1 ** p<0,01, According to the results of the Pearson correlational analysis given in Table 2; there are positive and meaningful relationships between servant leadership and job satisfaction (r= 0,821; p<0,01), empowerment and job satisfaction (r= 0,787; p<0,01), standing back and job satisfaction (r= 0,597; p<0,01), accountability and job satisfaction (r= 0,432; p<0,01), forgiveness and job satisfaction (r= Neriman celik, Aykut Beduk 0,265; p<0,01), authenticity and job satisfaction (r= 0,684; p<0,01), ), humility and job satisfaction (r= 0,729; p<0,01), stewardship and job satisfaction (r= 0,718; p<0,01). Simple linear regression analysis was conducted to test the hypotheses concerning the relationships between servant leadership and job satisfaction and the results are given in Table 3. Table 3. Results of the Regression Analysis Regarding the Effects of Perceptions of Servant Leadership on Job Satisfaction Non-standardized Standardized Coefficients coefficients Std β Error coefficients β t p Constant -,678 ,145 -4,685 ,000 Servant 1,191 ,043 ,821 27,951 ,000 Leadership p<0,01 F= 781,245 R2= 0,674 Dependent Variable: Job Satisfaction (Tolerance:1; VIF:1; Durbin Watson: 1,837) According to the results of the regression analysis given in Table 3, in which servant leadership was independent variable and job satisfaction was dependent variable, is statistically significant (R2= 0,674; F(1;378)= 781,245; p<0.01). It is observed that servant leadership, which is the explanatory variable in the model, explains 67.4 % of the variance in job satisfaction, which is the dependent variable. According to the findings of the study, it is understood that servant leadership has a positive and significant effect on job satisfaction (β= 0,821; p<0.01). Therefore, hypothesis H1 is supported. Simple Linear Regression Analysis was conducted to test the hypothesis concerning Relationships between Subdimensions of Servant Leadership and Job Satisfaction and the results are given in Table 4. Table 4. Results of the Regression Analysis Regarding the Effects of Sub-dimension of Servant Leadership on Job Satisfaction Non-standardized Standardized Variables coefficients coefficients t p β Std. Error β Constant 68 ,1 ,184 2 ,91 ,362 Empower ment 37 ,4 ,048 ,438 06 9,1 ,000 Standing Back -,001 ,045 -,001 -,015 ,988 Accounta bility -,025 ,034 -,026 -,728 ,467 ss Forgivene -,019 ,034 -,017 -,542 ,588 - - Courage ,102 ,030 -,101 3,414 ,001 ity Authentic 43 ,1 ,050 ,128 56 2,8 ,005 Humility 15 ,2 ,055 ,188 84 3,8 ,000 hip Stewards 04 ,3 ,048 ,265 44 6,3 ,000 p<0,01 F=127,167 R2= 0,728 Dependent Variable: Job Satisfaction Level; Tolerance Values: 0,311;0,423;0,57;0,712;0,822;0,361;0,306;0,413) The Effect Of The Servant Leadership Perceptions On Job Satisfaction According to the results of the regression analysis, VIF values vary between 1,216 and 3,265. These values are far lower than 10, which is regarded as the top limit. On the other hand, the lowest tolerance value in the model is 0.57 and this value is higher than 0.10, which is the bottom limit. Therefore, the problem of multiple connections was not encountered in the model. In addition, it is observed in the model that the Durbin-Watson coefficient is 1,910, and so the problem of auto-correlation was not encountered. According to the results of the regression analysis in Table 4, in the model where subdimensions of the servant leadership are independent variable and job satisfaction is dependent variable, the results are statistically significant (R2= 0,728; F(8;378)= 127,167; p<0.01). It is seen that sub-dimensions of the perception of servant leadership, which are the explanatory variables in the model, account for 72.8 % of the variance in job satisfaction, which is the dependent variable. According to the findings of the study, it is understood that, of the subdimensions of the servant leadership, empowerment (β= 0,438; p<0.01) has a positive and significant effect on job satisfaction; humility (β= 0,188; p<0.01) has a positive and significant effect on job satisfaction; and stewardship (β= 0,265; p<0.01) has a positive and significant effect on job satisfaction. Therefore, hypotheses H1a, H1g, and H1h are supported. However, it is seen that standing back (β= 0,074; p>0.01); accountability (β= 0,020; p>0.01); forgiveness (β= 0,038; p>0.01) and authenticity (β= 0,128; p>0.01) have a positive but insignificant effect on job satisfaction. Consequently, hypotheses H1b, H1c, H1d, and H1f, are not supported. In addition, it is observed that courage (β= -0,101 p<0.01) has a negative but significant effect on job satisfaction. Hence, hypothesis H1e is not supported. 5. Discussion and Conclusion In this study, the effects of perceptions of servant leadership, which has increased in importance in recent years, on job satisfaction was dealt with conceptually and empirically. According to the findings of the regression analysis focused on the relationship between perceptions of servant leadership and job satisfaction, perceptions of servant leadership are seen to have a positive and significant effect on job satisfaction. The following works exist in the relevant literature concerning job satisfaction, Pelit & Öztürk 2010; Eren & Yalçıntaş 2017; Topaloğlu &Yalçıntaş 2017; Çetin 2014; Cerit 2016 Guillaume 2013; Mayer et al. 2008 found in their study had investigated the relationship between servant leadership and the need for followers (adherents) and job satisfaction empirically and found a positive and significant correlation between servant leadership and job satisfaction. Therefore, the findings of the studies cited above are in support of the findings of this study. It was seen in terms of the employees of the accommodation enterprises within the scope of this sample that empowerment, humility and stewardship dimensions of servant leadership affected job satisfaction however, the courage dimension had a significant yet negative effect on job satisfaction. The other dimensions of servant leadership, namely standing back, forgiveness, and accountability did not have a significant effect on job satisfaction but the fact that standing back dimension could lead to internal motivation should be in conformity with the elements of the five job characteristics model proposed by Hackman and Oldham. It is expected that the standing back dimension should have a direct effect on internal and external motivations of employees at accommodation enterprises. In that case, it is thought that employees are influential on the five job characteristics proposed by Hackman and Oldham, because these characteristics include factors such as autonomy at work, participation in the work, responsibility, creativity, opportunities for individuals to use their skills and abilities and satisfactory feedback regarding individuals’ performances (skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy and feedback) (Mottaz, 1985, p. 366). However, the humility characteristic of the leader is also effective in employees’ receiving a positive feedback. The fact that the humility dimension has a significant and positive effect on job satisfaction in the study supports this situation. In particular, the findings of the study indicating that stewardship, empowerment and authenticity factors have a positive effect on job satisfaction are in support of this situation. According to this, empowerment practices conducted on employees working at accommodation enterprises, paying attention to employees’ skills and personal developments, setting goals encompassing the whole society and the quality of the ensuing benefits, managers’ imposing responsibility on employees in this regard, managers’ self-sufficiency and self-recognition Neriman celik, Aykut Beduk and improvement of employees in this direction as a result of servant leadership all seem to indicate that their internal and external motivations (such as the support of the superiors) will be affected positively. 6. References Akdl, B. (2015). Hizmetkâr Liderliģ̆̇ ̧in IsTatminine Etkisi: Bilisim Sektörnde Bir Uygulama, Yayımlanmamış̧̇̇ Doktora Tezi, Istanbul Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstits, Isletme Anabilim Dalı, İ stanbul. Brownell, J. (2010). Leadership in the Service of Hospitality, Cornell Hospitality Quarterly, 21 (3), 363-378. Boyum, Ginny (2006). 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Van Dick, R., Wagner, U., Stellmacher, J. Christ, O. (2004). The Utility Of A Broader Conceptualization Of Organizational Identification:Which Aspects Really Matter?, Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 77, 171– 191. Wagner III, J. A, Hollenbeck, J. B. (1998). Organizational Behavior: Securing Competitive Advantage, New Jersey: Prentıce Hall. Werhane, P. H., Painter-Morland, M. (2011). Leadership, Gender, and Organization. (Edited: Patrıcıa H. Werhane). Leadership, Gender, and Organization. DePaul University, Chicago, IL, USA and Mollıe Paınter-Morland, Springer Science Business Media B.V. Performance Measurement in Supply Chain Management Aliyenur Demiroglu, Mehmet Ozer Demir 1. Introduction Logistics is not a new concept, it may have existed till the prehistoric ages, however it is 1980’s that business world started to pay attention to it. Every new product introduced to market caused death of other products which resulted in a short product life. As the life-span (product life cycles) of the products begin to shorten, under increasing consumer expectations, businesses responded with decreasing design, manufacturing and distribution process. Supply chain management (SCM) became popular in order to decrase the time required from design to end consumer purchase, with the help of technological developments like GSM, internet or business process developments like night delivery. Today, not companies but supply chains compete, business with better and faster supply chain win the competition. Supply chain is defined with different approaches, authors used definitions according to the study conducted. Beamon (1998) defined supply chain as “a structured manufacturing process wherein raw materials are transformed into finished goods, then delivered to end customers”, or Pienaar and Vogt (2009) defines Supply Chain as “a general description of the process integration involving organizations to transform raw materials into finished goods and to transport them to the end-user”. Definitions in a smiliar context tend to define supply chain with the processes required, to determine the core determinants of an effective supply chain. Mostly, they use the flow of materials and destination of the materials stocked for definition purposes. According to these definitions, supply chain starts with raw materials, continues with value adding transportation activities and finishes with end consumer. As the business changes with competing consumer demands, authors evolved supply chain defitinoion to cope with the change. Little (1999) defines supply chain as “the combined and coordinated flows of goods from origin to final destination, also the information flows that are linked with it”. Chow and Heaver (1999) defines Supply Chain as “the group of manufacturers, suppliers, distributors, retailers and transportation, information and other logistics management service providers that are engaged in providing goods to consumers. A Supply Chain comprises both the external and internal associates for the corporate.” Ayers (2006) defines Supply Chain as “life cycle processes involving physical goods, information, and financial flows whose objective is to satisfy end consumer requisites with goods and services from diverse, connected suppliers”. Mentzer et al. (2001) defines Supply Chain as “a set of entities (eg.organizations or individuals) directly involved in the supply and distribution flows of goods, services, finances, and information from a source to a destination (customer).” Today, supply chain is not considered only as the transportation of material, but also the service, finance, information flow that adds values to end consumer, involving a group of manufacturer, supplier, distributor, retailer, transportation and information provider companies which form a network. 2. Supply Chain Management Supply chain is a network of companies whose terminal goal is to achieve high end consumer satisfaction. A supply chain should work like a chain literally, as the one weakest link in a chain determines the overall performance of the chain, in a supply chain every partner’s contribution determines the total value added and overall performance of the supply chain. Supply chain management concept has especially gained ground with the rise of multi-national companies, as the production of a product is saperated among different countries, smooth material flow is crucial for business processes (Langley, 2008). Today, competition is not between products but supply chains, which arouses the importance of supply chain management (Trkman, Stemberger, & Jaklic, 2005). Supply chain management is the managing of supply chain networks. As defined by Ayers (2006) Aliyenur Demiroglu, Mehmet Ozer Demir “Supply Chain management is the maintenance, planning, and Supply Chain processes activity for the satisfaction of consumers needs.”. Ganeshan and Harrison (1995) has defined Supply Chain Management (SCM) as “a chain of facilities and distribution alternatives that performs the functions of obtainment of products, transformation of these products into intermediate and finished goods, and the distribution of these finished goods to customers”. H. L. Lee and Billington (1995) declare that Supply Chain Management (SCM) incorporates “the integration of activities taking place among facilities network that acquire raw material, transform them into intermediate products and then final goods, and deliver goods to customers through a system of distribution”. According to Christopher (1998) supply chain refers to “the organizations network that are involved in the diverse processes and activities that generate value in the form of goods and services in the hands of the end customer”. According to Grant, Lambert, Stock, and Ellram (2006), Supply Chain management refers to “corporate business processes integration from end users through suppliers that provides information, goods, and services that add value for customers”. Supply Chain management definitions can be used the determine the important determinants of an effective supply chain: 1-integration of key business processes 2-value addet o end consumer 3-the designing all activities 4-management of all activities 5-coordination and partnership with network partners 6-supply and demand management within and across corporate Supply Chain Management (SCM) is the “strategic and efficient coordination of the conventional business functions and the strategies across these business functions within a specific corporate and across businesses within a supply chain, for the aims of developing the long-term performance of the corporate and the supply chain as an entire (Janvier-James, 2012). In a traditional supply chain management, raw materials are the input of a plant, and usually materials are stocked in the plants inventory or a mediators wharehouse, which will later be manufactured as a product. Finished products are then transported to the wholesalers, retailers or other mediators. In a supply chain there are various number of decision makers involved in numerous levels. In conclusion supply chain management is the ability to manage conflict of interest grups under one common goal, high end consumer satisfaction. 3. Performance Measurement in Supply Chain Management How performance should be measured is very important, weak measures may make the firm to see itself in a magnifiying mirror, alter the developement, mislead decision making or spending resources improperly. Accurate measurement of performance is crucial for planning and controlling the processes, as well as, it supports managers with tools to supervise motivation, development, communication and defining the problems (Waggoner, Neely, & Kennerley, 1999). Supply chain is a value adding process for the producer, wholesaler and the retailer. Retailers are the last link in chain that deals with end consumers, so, a supply chains goal should be a system that can effect end consumers buying decisions (Risch, 1987). If we approach the supply chain as a network companies, competition with the rivals leads to minimum stock levels resulting decreased costs (Zhou, 2011). Today, common view is that not individual companies but supply chains compete, and in order to manage the supply chain measuring supply chain management performance will be the first step because you cannot manage if you cannot measure the current peformance (Das, 1994). Measuring overall performance of a supply chain is crucial, although it is rigorous and difficult. Every decision maker involved in the network has its own goals and a considerable huge amount of metarial flow through the supply chain makes it more complex. Authors realized that supply chain performance measurement is a multi dimensional concept (Cirtita & Glaser-Segura, 2012; Dwayne Whitten, Green Jr, & Zelbst, 2012), as a result of such challanges academicians to developed new performance measurement methods. Performance Measurement in Supply Chain Management Auhors suggested that increase in the effectiveness is a result of supply chain (Bhasin, 2008; Christopher, 1998), however the realation is statistically weak. Especially, studies that focus on the overall performance of a supply chain stated that performance measures are inable to capture the effectiveness and efficiency of the supply chain (Gawankar, Kamble, & Raut, 2016). Performance measurement is one of the most used variable in the literature, however what performance is still remains a mystery. From a historical point of view, first measurement mothods are mostly financial and usually cash flows are taken into consideration. Over time, authors stated the need for overall performance measurement (Pursell, 1980). As the competition moved towards quality, product range and innovation, financial measures lost ground as data from accounting is not able to capture such variables. Meanwhile, financial performance measures usually take past years’ data. So, financial measures state what is already done, thus, they donot provide any usefull information for future. Such developement in change in businness mentality forced academicians to develope alternative performance measurements other than financial. Literatre supports a variety of performance measurement methods for supply chains, SMART (Cross & Lynch, 1988), Performance Measurement Questionaire (PMQ) (Dixon, Nanni, & Vollmann, 1990), The Balanced Scorecard (R. Kaplan & Norton, 1996; R. S. Kaplan & Norton, 2005), Strategic Performance Measurement System (Vitale, Mavrinac, & Hauser, 1994), Integrated Dynamic Performance Measurement System (IDPMS) (Ghalayini, Noble, & Crowe, 1997), Holistic Process Performance Measurement System (PPMS) (Kueng, 2000). Every performance measurement system has its advantages and down falls. It should always be in mind that performance measurement systems evolve with the business’ requirements. There is actually no one perfect performance measurement for all time and all situations. 4. Evaluation Of The Performance Measurement Systems Performance measurement is crucial for many sector, however, all the performance measurement systems develeoped has their own down falls. The performance measurement should be able to support managers with required data for accurate decisions. Traditional performance measurements based on accounting lacks the overall performance measures. In supply chain management where a network of firms works together to achieve high end consumer value, traditional mesaures provide insufficient data. Measures based on accounting usually provide data about profit, return on investment, return on sales, change in purchase prices and productivity (Ghalayini et al., 1997), however they suppor no data about quality, customer satisfaction, consumer loyalty ect. The common down falls of performance measurement systems are; 1-Short term and financial; Most of the performance measurement systems use financial reporting which are periodicals, and mostly on-year, which leads the firm to exchange long term profits for short term financial goals. Managers efforts to achieve short term goals may cause the firm to miss long term goals. Meanwhile, financial reporting does not give any usefull information about the future, they state what has already done. Financial reports are the result, not the cause, thus, they donot provide required data that how should performance be improved. 2-Inconquent measures; It is important for a firm to achieve its long term strategy, thus the performance measures that may help the firm to achive it’s strategical goals is important. Performance measurement system should provide the data whether the strategical golas achieved or not, or to help the firm to determine what shoul be done to achive the strategy. The firm’s performance measures and the firm strategy should be conqruent. If the performance measurement criteria are not derived from firm’s long term strategied, performance measures may not help the firm to plan and control its strategy. 3-Internal Focus and Local Optimization; Production facilities are organized under departments, and most of the performance measurement systems aim to capture the performance of every individual unit which called local optimization, ignoring the performance of other departments. Local optimization of departments may not lead to overall performance which is the aim of the all performance measurement systems. Aliyenur Demiroglu, Mehmet Ozer Demir 4-Lack of Continous Development Focus; Performance measurement systems usually aim to capture the variance in the performance measures (like, the difference in ROI compared to previous year). As the goal of the managers is to minimize the variance and fluctuation in the measures, numerous performance measurement systems lack to support for future planning diminishing the development of the firm. 5-Incongruent Measures; Measures used inperformance measurement systems tend to increase in numbers, very year new measures are added but no measure is removed from the list. Using old and new measures together may lead to incongruency because an increase in one measure may require a decrease in another measure, thus, it may be impossible to determine the trend in performance. Another problem is the inconqruent measures associated with performance. Performance measures should be revised according to the developments in business. 6-Digitizing Problem; In performance measurement systems both quantitative and qantitative measures are used together to determine the overall performance. In another words tangible and intable measures are used together to calculate a performance index. The problem arises in the weigths of the measures, furthermore, digitizing of intangible measures still remains as a problem. Although literature suggests various performance measurement systems in supply chain management, it is obvious that the systems offered are not sufficient enough to meet the complex and changing natre of the businesses, a network of decision makers does make it much more challanging. A successful network should be fast, innovative, offers high quality, flexible, responsive to customer and integrated with each other, thus, performance masures sufficient enough to capture these feature should be determined. Some authors suggest using intangible measures over tangible (financial) measures claiming that intangible measures are the cause tanbigle measures are the result (R. S. Kaplan, 1986). The idea is that customer satisfaction, quality, customer loyalty ect may lead to financial measures like profitability, ROI or income, however not the other way round. There is no concensus on the measurement of performance in a supply chain context (Chan, 2003; Chen & Paulraj, 2004; Flynn, Wu, & Melnyk, 2010). Some authors researched why some supply chains perform better than their competitior and suggested independent variables as an explanation (Gunasekaran, Patel, & Tirtiroglu, 2001), whereas some authors measured the performance of a supply chain. Literature supports evidence for 10 performance measures used in supply chain mangement: 1-Traditional measures; are mostly rely on accounting data and they are financial in nature. They are efficincy, productivity, responsive time, stock levels ect measures. Traditional measures do not measure the overall network performance but local optimization. 2-Flexibality; is the adaptation ability of a company’s operations and links with its suppliers to the variable nature of business’ demands (Elwan Ibrahim & Ogunyemi, 2012; Lummus, Vokurka, & Duclos, 2005). Flexibality requires new product development, delivery time, delivery volume/quantity and delivery mix responsiveness. 3-Integration; is the degree of consolidation with the companies in the network (suppliers, customers and other intermediaries) and within the company (Stock, Greis, & Kasarda, 1998). Integration level is researched under three dimension; integration with the customer, integration with the supplier and integration within the (Gimenez, van der Vaart, & van Donk, 2012). 4-Responsiveness to customer demands is the speeed of answering customer demands (Narasimhan & Jayaram, 1998). Responsiveness to customer demands is offenly used as an independent varible in performance measurement of supply chain management (Christy & Grout, 1994; Deshpande, 2012; Kiefer & Novack, 1999; H. L. Lee & Billington, 1992; Spekman, Kamauff Jr, & Myhr, 1998; Stevens, 1990). Effectiveness is not a well defined measure; however, it is widely used in many reaserches with the required defitinition of the study conducted. In a supply chain management context, effectiveness can be defined as the cost advantage over competing network (Bagchi, Chun Ha, Skjoett-Larsen, & Boege Soerensen, 2005). In order to lower the total cost, companies in the network may share information, joint product development, joint logistics or give decisions together, increasing the overall effectiveness of the network (Cao & Zhang, 2011). Performance Measurement in Supply Chain Management 5-Quality is one of the most difficult concepts in literatre to define. In supply chain management, quality is the ability of a network to offer high value for the end consumer (S. H. Li & Lin, 2006) and it is common measure used in performance measurement systems (Behrouzi & Wong, 2011; Manrodt, Abott, & Visatek, 2005; Naylor, Naim, & Berry, 1999). 6-Innovativeness is the ability to offer new thechnologies and products to customers that adds value, different than avaible (Chitakornkijsil, 2012). Innovativeness is an indicator of a companies power as well as its ability to respond the changing and evolving market demands and it is a prerequisite for higher profit margin (Tung, 2012). 7-Market performance, is a financial measure and mostly uses increase in sales volme, return on assets, new market development and new product development (Deshpande, 2012). Supply chain management supports market performance readucing costs, increasing income and reducing defects during transportation (Shin, Collier, & Wilson, 2000). 8-Relationship measures are the nonfinancial measures that accounting data can not capture. Although they can not be recognized by the accoounting records, in the long run they affect performance (Beamon, 1999; D. Li & O'Brien, 1999; Neely, Gregory, & Platts, 1995; Van Der Vorst, 2006). However, the relationships between the companies in a network is abstract in nature, and it is difficult to measure its effect on performance. 9-Partnership quality; is the satisfaction of business partners expectation from each other, it is a the degree of partners matching expectations (J.-N. Lee & Kim, 1999). High quality partnership positively affected from mutual trust, common problem solving and keeping promises and negatively affected from long and detailed agreements and compulsory items. A quality partnership is supposed to lower costs by responding changes rapidly, finding better solutions for problems and reducing costs which will result in overall reduced costs (Srinivasan, Mukherjee, & Gaur, 2011). 10-Supplier performance; is a measure of delivery of the required raw materials and its components just in time and with no defect. Authors stated that supplier performance can be achieved with delivery speed and high quality service, (Johnston, McCutcheon, Stuart, & Kerwood, 2004). In this study, performance measurement in supply chain management is researched using a survey variables avaible in the literature. Defining the variables affecting performance of supply chain is supposed to enligth the future studies. Previous studies mostly used financial measures like cost, delivery time, response time, productivity variables, quantitative in nature than qualitative (Gorane & Singh, 2012). Research focuses on perceived performance in order to determine the measures that could not be captured by accounting records/books. Nonfinancial measures are especially usefull when it comes to achieve strategical goals of a company. Most of the measurement systems developed tend to monitor and control the supply chain, not achieving strategies in the long run (Amaratunga, Baldry, & Sarshar, 2001). 5. Method An adapted version of survey is used in the study (Gawankar et al., 2016) composed of 39 Likert type questions (1=Strongly Disagree, 5=Strongly Agree), and 5 demographics about the participant and the firm he/she is employeed. The questionaire in the study captures supply chain felexibality, supply chain integration, responsiveness to customers, supplier performance and partnership quality. Survey took place in Konya Organized Industrial Zone, with face to face interview by educated pollster a total of 109 companies participated in the study, 2 of the questinaires are removed because of missing data remaining 107 questionaires. 5.1. Reliability and Validity Tests For reliability Cronbach’s Alpha Quaficient is calculated (Table 1). Supplier performance dimesion item no 6 (Our supplier base has reduced over the past three years) is removed as it lowers cranbach’s alpha. Measures used are validated by Gawankar et al. (2016). Artimetic total of all the items in a dimension are calculated and corelations with the item scores and dimension scores are compared. Correlations between theoretically similar measures are found to be high while correlations between theoretically Aliyenur Demiroglu, Mehmet Ozer Demir dissimilar measures are low, suggesting convergent and discriminant validity. Although Supply Chain Supplier Performance dimensin item no1 correlates high both with Supply Chain Supplier Performance dimension (r, 0,725) and Supply Chain Partner Quality dimension (r, 0747) litareture supports evidence for the item to be associated with the supplier performance measure (Gawankar et al., 2016). Table 1: Cronbach’s Alpha Quaficients for Reliability Test Dimension Number of Cronbach’s Items Alpha Overall 38 0,968 SC_Flexibality* 5 0,835 SC_Intergration* 5 0,865 SC_Responsiveness* 3 0,846 SC_SupPer* 5 0,857 SC_ParQua* 20 0,931 *SC_Flexibality, Supply Chain Flexibality; SC_Intergration, Supply Chain Integration; SC_Responsiveness, Supply Chain Responsiveness; SC_SupPer, Supply Chain Supplier Performance; SC_ParQua, Supply Chain Partner Quality 5.2. Findings The aim of the study is reveal relationship between the performance measures used in supply chain management literature. Thus, correlation analysis and regression analysis are conducted to research the constructs. Aritmetic total of item scores are summed up and aritmetic mean is calculated for every each construct to obtain an index value for the dimensions, realtionship tests are performed using index values. Pearson correlations are calculated to research the relationships between dimensions (Table 2). Table 2: Correlation among performance measures SC_Flexiba SC_Integrat SC_Responsive SC_Sup lity ion ness Per SC_Integration ,825** SC_Responsive ,660** ,772** ness SC_SupPer ,714** ,820** ,680** SC_ParQua ,773** ,856** ,777** ,801** ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). Pearson correlation analysis reveal statiscally significant relationships between nonfinancial supply chain performance measures used in the literature. According to the correlation analysis, supply chain integration and supply chain partner quality are correlated highest (r, 0,856; p<0,01), followed by supply chain integration and supply chain flexibality (r, 0,825; p<0,01) and supply chain integration and supply chain supplier performance (r, 0,820; p<0,01). Although statistically significant, lowest correlation are between supply chain responsiveness and supply chain flexibality (r, 0,660; p<0,01), supply chain responsiveness and supply chain supplier performance (r, 0,680; p<0,01). To further research the relationship between constructs, a regression analysis is conducted. Supply chain supplier performance is considered as the dependent varible and supply chain flexibality, supply chain integration, supply chain responsiveness and supply chain parner quality as independent variables, enter method is used as default. Regression analysis reveal a statistically significant model (p<0,001) (Table4), with high R2 (0,733) (Table 3). Although the model is significant and determination coefficient is high that the model explains and predicts outcome well, not all the varibles are statistically significant (Table 5). Regression equation suggests that Supply Chain Supplier Performance is positively affected by Supply Chain Integration (B, 0.454; t<0,001) and Supply Chain Partner Quality (B, 0,365; p<0,05). Supply Chain Performance Measurement in Supply Chain Management Flexibality and Supply Chain Responsiveness has no statistically significant effect on Supply Chain Supplier Performance. Table 3: Model Summary M R R Adjusted R Std. Error of the odel Square Square Estimate 1 ,8 ,733 ,722 ,32198 56a SC_Sup_Per dependent; SC Flexibility, SC Integration, SC Responsiveness, SC_ParQua independent varibles Table 4: ANOVA Model Sum of df Mean F Si Squares Square g. 1 Regressi 25,393 4 6,348 61 ,0 on ,236 00b Residual 9,227 89 ,104 Total 34,620 93 Table 5: Coefficients Model Unstandardized Standardize t Si Coefficients d Coefficients g. B Std. Beta Error 1 (Constant) ,847 ,241 3, ,0 515 01 SC ,013 ,087 ,015 ,1 ,8 Flexibility 52 80 SC ,454 ,106 ,550 4, ,0 Integration 298 00 SC -,023 ,076 -,028 - ,7 Responsiveness ,301 64 SC_ParQua ,365 ,122 ,347 2, ,0 985 04 SC_Sup_Per= (0,013) SC Flexibility + (0,454) SC Integration + (-0,023) SC Responsiveness+ (0,365) SC_ParQua + 0,847 0,880 0,000 0,764 0,04 6. Discussion and Conclusion The study aims to contribute to literature on supply chain management by researching the relationships between nonfinancial performance measures. As it is important for the academicians and professionals to determine what measures to use for performance measurement in supply chain management, the paper enlightens future researches by stating the relationships between nonfinancial variables. The paper also tests the reliability and validity of the measures within Turkish context. The measures and items used in the study can be used by researchers for further supply chain management studies in Turkey. Relationships stated in the study can be of use managers for business decisions and competitive advantage. As financial measures mostly capture previous year’s performance, especially for strategical purposes, nonfinancial measures should be used for evaluating strategical goals achievement. Aliyenur Demiroglu, Mehmet Ozer Demir Nonfinancial measures are prerequisite for financial measures, in the long run, achievement of nonfinancial measures may lead to outcomes like competitive advantage, organizational performance and higher profits. Supply chains are a business network, and their complex nature makes it difficult to determine a one unique measure for overall performance. The study captures supply chain flexibility, supply chain integration, responsiveness to customers, supplier performance and partnership quality, demonstrating the multidimensional nature of the supply chain management. Still, most of the companies do not understand the supply chain management concept, and they take it as a logistics. The study gives insight for the professionals about supply chain management and performance measurement issues related. Understanding what supply chain management is an important part of managing it, and to manage a supply chain measuring performance is required. Although, measures used in the study are supposed to help professionals in evaluating their current supply chain performance, understanding the nature of performance measurement in a supply chain is more rewarding. Professionals can use the measures used in the study to identify their supply chains and direct for future strategical goals. In the long run nonfinancial measures are better determinants of performance than financial measures. A company can use the measures used in the study for future direction. 8. References Amaratunga, D., Baldry, D., & Sarshar, M. (2001). Process improvement through performance measurement: the balanced scorecard methodology. Work study, 50(5), 179-189. Ayers, J. B. (2006). Handbook of supply chain management: CRC Press. Bagchi, P. K., Chun Ha, B., Skjoett-Larsen, T., & Boege Soerensen, L. (2005). Supply chain integration: a European survey. The international journal of logistics management, 16(2), 275-294. Beamon, B. M. (1998). 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International journal of production economics, 60-1, 53-60. doi:Doi 10.1016/S0925-5273(98)00201-1 Zhou, G. (2011). Research on the Supporting Role of Information Integration to Supply Chain Management in Large Retail Enterprises. Paper presented at the Computer and Management (CAMAN), 2011 International Conference on. Future Prospects on Maintenance Through Industry 4.0Transformation Fatma Demircan Keskin, İnanc Kabasakal 1. Introduction Industry 4.0 is regarded as a disruptive transformation in manufacturing and business processes. In this transformation, recent rapid developments of information and internet technologies, especially cyberphysical systems (CPS) and the internet of things (IoT), and advanced analytic tools that enable creating value from big data have had major roles. Industry 4.0 creates a manufacturing environment in which machines, physical objects, information, and people are integrated. Manufacturing systems have undergone a number of revolutionary changes since the beginning of the industrialization. Today’s manufacturing system is called as “Predictive Manufacturing Systems” where the technological developments and capabilities underlying Industry 4.0 are reflected in the manufacturing environment (Nikolic et al., 2017, p. 796). Predictive Manufacturing Systems aim at achieving transparency in the plant by predicting the uncertainties and invisible problems in processes, equipment, and systems through the use of advanced analytic techniques (Lee et al., 2013, p. 151). Industry 4.0 transforms manufacturing systems into intelligent, interconnected production systems, with a focus on the installation of intelligent products and manufacturing processes (Brettel et al., 2014; Niesen et al., 2016). Within this manufacturing environment, the role of maintenance has changed, and maintenance has become a value-creating process that facilitates the smooth run of machines and processes. The fundamental components and technologies of Industry 4.0, especially CPS, IoT, big data analytics, support essential maintenance activities such as health-monitoring, diagnosing, finding root causes of failures and offer possibilities for maintenance. This study aims to provide a review of these possibilities for maintenance and discuss its future prospects. For this purpose, the study will begin with an introduction of the historical evolution of maintenance strategies. Afterwards, opportunities offered by Industry 4.0 for maintenance will be summarized. Finally, discussions about the future prospects for maintenance will be presented. 2. Evolution of Maintenance Approaches The perception of the maintenance function has changed significantly in recent years. Traditionally the maintenance function is perceived as a reactive process in which broken items are repaired. This approach is referred to as reactive maintenance, corrective maintenance or breakdown maintenance (Ahuja and Khamba, 2008, p. 712). In the literature, there have been studies classifying the evolution of maintenance strategies over the years into different stages. Kothamasu et al. (2006) have categorized maintenance approaches into two main categories as reactive and proactive maintenance, based on whether they are planned or not. They have considered the corrective maintenance as a type of reactive maintenance. In their classification, preventive and predictive maintenance have fallen into the category of proactive maintenance. Condition Based Maintenance and Reliability Centered Maintenance have been included under predictive maintenance. Jain et al. (2014) have categorized the development of maintenance concepts as breakdown, preventive, predictive, corrective, Total productive maintenance, maintenance prevention, productive maintenance, reliability-centered maintenance and computerized maintenance management systems. O'Donovan et al. (2015) have considered common industrial maintenance strategies as reactive, corrective, preventive and predictive. Jin et al. (2016) have reviewed maintenance strategies under reactive, preventive, predictive and proactive maintenance strategies. The descriptions of maintenance strategies classified differently in the literature are briefly presented below. Fatma Demircan Keskin, İnanc Kabasakal • Reactive maintenance is a maintenance strategy in which equipment is repaired when it breaks. It reacts to emergencies when they occur (Gallimore and Penlesky, 1988, 16). • Corrective maintenance is a maintenance strategy in which maintenance is performed after a breakdown or when there is an apparent fault (Niu et al., 2010, p. 786). • Proactive maintenance is a maintenance strategy aiming to avoid breakdowns by monitoring equipment deterioration and making minor repairs to bring the equipment to the appropriate condition (Swanson, 2001, p. 238). • Preventive and predictive maintenance activities are perfomed in the proactive maintenance strategy. In preventive maintenance, maintenance activities are performed at intervals determined by using reliability theory or examining historical data from machines. Predictive maintenance is triggered by an out-of-range monitoring device reading (Paz and Leigh, 1994, p. 49). • Reliability Centered Maintenance is a process that focuses on identifying and creating operational, maintenance and capital development policies. It is used to determine what needs to be done to ensure that physical entities continue to do what their users want them to do in their current operational context (Moubray, 1997, p. 7; Niu et al., 2010, p. 788). • Condition-based maintenance is a strategy that aims to avoid unnecessary maintenance activities and suggests that maintenance activities should be carried out when there is evidence of the abnormal behavior of a physical entity identified in the collected information through condition monitoring (Jardine et al., 2006, p. 1484). • Total Productive Maintenance, is a comprehensive approach involving employees from the production and maintenance personnel up to the top management, aims to maximize the effectiveness of the equipment throughout the entire life cycle (Jain et al., 2014, p. 298; McKone et al., 1999, p. 123). • Computerized maintenance management systems, are systems for management of information on maintenance activities, workforce, schedules, historical data of machines.The use of these systems also eases the management of spare parts and other resources related to maintenance (Swanson, 1997, p.195). Singh et al. (2014) have presented the changes of maintenance generations starting from the 1940s (Figure 1). The first two generations expressed in Figure 1 refer to reactive and preventative maintenance strategies, respectively. In the third generation of maintenance, condition monitoring, design for reliability and maintenance, failure modes and effect analysis and expert systems have been used in the maintenance process. Condition-based maintenance, predictive maintenance and reliability-based maintenance strategies can be considered as the most compatible maintenance strategies with the characteristics of this maintenance generation. The fourth generation of maintenance is the period that reflects the effects of Industry 4.0 on maintenance. With technologies such as IoT, CPS, which form the basis of Industry 4.0, it has become possible to plan maintenance based upon the big volume of data collected in real time, to better understand the health status of products, to make better diagnosis and improve the maintenance of equipment (Roy et al., 2016, p. 668). Future Prospects on Maintenance Through Industry 4.0 Transformation 1st Generation (up to 1950s) -Fix equipment when it breaks 2nd Generation (1950-1970) -Schedule overhauls -System for planning and control 3rd Generation (1970-2012) -Condition Monitoring, Expert systems -Design of Reliabilityand Maintenance -Failure modes and effect analysis 4th Generation (2013 -onward) -Self-optimize -Self-maintenance Figure 1: Four generations of maintenance Singh et al., 2014, p. 76 Prognostics and health management (PHM) is a discipline based on a set of technologies, that is used to assess systems health status, determine causes of failures, predict deterioration trends in assets and their remaining useful performance in life cycles, and support optimal maintenance decisions to eliminate the source of failure before the occurrence of problems (Kwon et al., 2016, p. 3659; Jin et al., 2016, p.4-5). The use of PHM in manufacturing has accelerated as manufacturing systems begin to evolve into predictive manufacturing systems. In recent years, studies in the field of maintenance have revealed that PHM is a key research area that is frequently studied (see Lee et al., 2013; Pellegrino et al., 2016; Jin et al., 2016; Vogl et al., 2016; Roy et al., 2016). 3. Opportunities for Maintenance within Industry 4.0 Transformation The progress on digital technologies has offered a great potential to improve processes in operations and production management. Originally, Industry 4.0 was presented and described as a disruptive transformation in manufacturing processes. Besides, it can be argued that the Industry 4.0 transformation paves the way for rewarding progress in other processes related to manufacturing. In a report by McKinsey Digital (2015: p.19), Industry 4.0 is related to the effect of digitalization in manufacturing as follows: “This digital optimization builds on an end-to-end information flow – in short: a “digital thread” running through the entire product lifecycle as its digital representation. This digital thread starts with the digital design of the product, passes on through the digitally steered and controlled manufacturing process, leads to the digital monitoring of the end product in operation (e.g., for maintenance purposes), and finally ends in the recycling of the product”. In such perspective, digital technologies are the essential elements to transform manufacturing processes. Moreover, the operations are monitored throughout the whole process. In such setting, the digital infrastructure to monitor production processes and products might also help to track the health status of machines and other equipment in the facility as well. In a report by Deloitte (2017), predictive maintenance is described as the most efficient maintenance strategy currently available, that will most benefit from emerging technological transformation. Industry 4.0 vision involves automated production systems that have the capability to operate dynamically, with use of contextual data. Jazdi (2014, p.1) described CPS as the embedded systems that can send and receive data over a network, which usually involve microcontrollers that control sensors and actuators to interact with the physical world. Lee et al. (2015) argued that the CPS possess the ability to infer useful information from data, and specialized algorithms enable prognosis and health management of “self-aware” systems. Moreover, Baheti and Gill (2011) argued that with the pervasion Fatma Demircan Keskin, İnanc Kabasakal of CPS, future engineering systems will involve further autonomy, functionality, and reliability. In this regard, CPS is expected to support various tasks related to health-monitoring and maintenance in production systems. Self-awareness of a system requires monitoring and processing real-time contextual data to obtain useful information in decisions. Intuitively, advanced data analytic methods, including data mining is required to process sensor data to build capabilities that stand for self-awareness. Moreover, predictive health monitoring in the Industry 4.0 context also corresponds further to concepts such as selfprediction, self-configuration, self-adaptation, self-organization, and self-maintenance capabilities (Lee at. al, 2015). Harding et al. (2006) underlined the importance of data mining within the context of preventive maintenance, argued that further data collection process is not required for data mining since manufacturing provides the opportunity for real-time data collection. Moreover, data analysis and software is utilized in specialized, “smart” products during the product lifetime as well. Vogel-Heuser et al. (2015) focused on the maintenance of “automated” products, and, and argued that the role of software in automated products depends on the product lifetime and the level of automation. In this regard, the scope of maintenance is extended beyond the manufacturing process; the automated products having a long lifetime were covered as one of the fundamental subjects in the context of manufacturing. Kans and Galar (2017) also argued the importance of data mining in maintenance. Accordingly, data mining can be utilized to discover useful patterns and relations in data and helps to locate the root causes of failures in Maintenance Decision Support Systems. Fumagalli and Macchi (2015) remunerated Service Oriented Architecture (SOA), a paradigm that credits individual components that provide discrete and remotely accessible functionality, as one of the technical mechanisms that facilitate distributed monitoring and controlling by allowing embedded solutions that interact with each other. Mourtzis et al. (2016) proposed a model to capture shop-floor data for analysis to support condition-based maintenance. The model incorporates Cloud infrastructure for data processing and calculation of remaining operation time of machine tools. In such scenario, more complex analytical tasks are performed on the Cloud infrastructure, whereas the sensor network merely performs data collection tasks at the shop-floor. Lee and Lapira (2011) underlined the importance of machine learning algorithms on embedded devices that help to predict the degradation of machine components and enable predictive techniques to assist smart TPM systems. As an example, an application to monitor torque for joints used in robotic systems, and raise alarms in case the measured torque exceeds the safe threshold in the study. However, the authors also remarked the tightness of the time window to perform the corrective action; and argued the necessity of real-time health assessment based on PHM would result in a better time window for intervention. Furthermore, Vesely (2017) noted that machine learning algorithms used for asset degradation detection help to reduce costs by avoiding both under investments in maintenance to prevent failures, and overinvestments in maintenance to reduce unnecessary operations. Within the context of maintenance, Muller et al. (2008) underlined the crucial role of e-technologies (Bluetooth, Internet, PDA’s, Sensor Technology, Signal Processing, etc.) to design new solutions that accomplish distributed & intelligent maintenance tasks. Within the Industry 4.0 context, such technologies are listed within a list of “enabling technologies for Industry 4.0” (Wan et al., 2015) that also involve 3D printing technology, CPS, Cloud Computing, Big Data, etc. Besides, Singh et al. (2014) discussed the emerging technologies (including nanosensors, controllers, smart algorithms) within the self-maintenance context; and noted the importance of such progress in the emergence of new maintenance concepts. Penna et al. (2014) expressed the importance of sensor networks within the Intelligent Maintenance Systems (IMS) context, and identified the potential usage of CPS in maintenance to facilitate “sensing”. Muller et al. (2008) argued the technological progress along with their potential improvements in maintenance strategies, and summarized those as the following: -Remote maintenance Future Prospects on Maintenance Through Industry 4.0 Transformation - Cooperative / Collaborative Maintenance - Immediate / Online Maintenance - Predictive Maintenance As the studies covered so far suggests, new technologies provide new opportunities for maintenance as well as manufacturing. Furthermore, adoption of technologies related to Industry 4.0 and manufacturing facilities require further preparation in businesses. To assess the conformance level of enterprises to Industry 4.0, Schumacher et al. (2016) have offered a maturity model that involve various dimensions including customers, operations, products, technology. 4. Discussion As a trending and popular buzzword, “Industry 4.0” has attracted an intensive audience in communities in the academy and various industries. The term is mostly used as a disruptive, progressive wave of transformation and relates to visionary statements regarding the future. The technological infrastructure and competencies of Industry 4.0 enable predictive manufacturing systems that can predict the causes of problems and prevent them from appearing. Maintenance has become a critical process in these manufacturing systems. From this point of view, this study aims to examine changes in maintenance in the context of Industry 4.0. Maintenance approaches have gone through some generations up to today. Self-maintenance and PHM concepts are prominent in the last generation that reflects the effects of Industry 4.0 on maintenance. Especially in recent years, PHM has been used intensively in manufacturing and it has an important role to achieve the abilities of predictive manufacturing systems. Industry 4.0 influenced the way maintenance strategies are implemented, including all maintenance strategies, from reactive maintenance to predictive maintenance. Among the maintenance strategies, predictive, condition based maintenance and PHM applications are more compatible with the age of Industry 4.0 and more attention is given to these approaches in recent studies. The prevalence of self-aware, automated systems is questionable in the manufacturing facilities for the present. However, it can be expected that the machinery used in manufacturing will be upgraded, enabling implementation of advanced maintenance strategies leveraging a higher level of automation & self-awareness. Consequently, it can be argued that the technical deficiencies that preclude new maintenance strategies will gradually degrade over time. 5. References Ahuja, I. P. S., & Khamba, J. S. (2008). Total productive maintenance: literature review and directions. 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Introduction Student Information Systems (SIS) are a type of Information Systems and it is also known as Student Management Systems, School Administration Software and Student Administration Systems. SIS have lots of functions such as providing record management of past, present and future students covering aspects of enquiry, application, enrolment, academic performance and history, allowing for billing and fees management, processing important events such as graduations and examinations, programming classes, reporting operational and management issues and feeding data into numerous other specialist systems (Mukerjee, 2012). The work about of users’ emotional behavior as an vital angle of the user experience has been getting expanding consideration for the past ten years and studying emotions and affect as part of the user experience is essential in order to measure emotional reactions. (Mahlke & Minge, 2008). Palen and Bdker (2008) stated that emotion is an important issue in Human-computer Interaction (HCI). User experience has three main typical features which are “user”, “that user is interacting with a product, system, or really anything with an interface” and “the user’s experience is of interest, and observable or measurable” (Tullis & Albert, 2013). It is extremely important to take the informative function of emotions into account when designing HCI interfaces (Kim & Moon, 1998). According to Jordan (1998) creating usable products may not the same meaning as creating pleasurable products. As a result it is necessary to measure user emotions. Mahlke and Minge (2008) asserted that this can be performable through various ways such as heart rate and Electrodermal Activity (EDA), Electromyography (EMG) or pupil responses, the analysis of facial expressions captured by video, or various kinds of survey methods; questionnaires, interviews, etc. ISO standard 9,241-11 Guidance on Usability (1998) defines usability as “the extent to which a product can be used by specified users to achieve specified goals with effectiveness, efficiency and satisfaction in a specified context of use”. Nielsen (1993) stated that usability as one of the parameters associated with the acceptability of any system. Since systems are developed for users, usability focuses on understanding users. That’s why, if developers desire to develop a useful system, the understanding of potential users is vital. SIS have become trendy in the last decade and abundant educational institutions have been using SIS to manage their data. However, there are still few studies about the SIS’s usability in the literature. Among barriers to SIS adoption is poor usability (Carcary, Long, & Remenyi, 2007). Usability of the SIS is important because thousands of people including for students, academicians and administrative personnel use SIS in order to conduct educational tasks. Gemmell and Pagano (2003) studied user perceptions and overall attitude to effectiveness of a SIS in the Salford University. Data were collected from 84 users through a four-part questionnaire, mostly closed questions. The authors found that the users have experienced difficulties while they are using the system and they indicated that an assessment of the user skill base is required. Furthermore, they stated that users’ skill base should be regarded when implementing new functionalities of a system. Another study is carried out in the University Malaysia Sabah.(Nordaliela, Suriani, & Nathaniel, 2013) Data was collected using Computer System Usability Questionnaire. The respondents in that study were 132 students of Computer Science program and two operation officers from Information Technology Department. Through factor analysis, four factors; useful information, timely access, interface design, and error recovery were usability factors which received concerns from the users. Most importantly, they found that usability is critical factor for user satisfaction. Denizhan Demirkol, Cagla Seneler Effective SIS not only satisfies personals and students but also increase sustainability of academic workflow. In order to prevent user errors, maintain users’ tasks and increase users’ satisfaction towards to the system, usability study is essential for SIS. Usually SIS have been developing without usability analysis and user-centred design principles although these efforts should be carried out by developers. Formal usability testing of the SIS could help to improve the system and increase its beneficial effects on academic workflow. Nielsen (1993) stated that no usability test should be performed without first having tried out the test procedure on a few pilot subjects. To our knowledge, no comprehensive usability test of selected university’s SIS had been previously done. Therefore, the main goal of this pilot experiment was before experimenting large student groups to identify possible problems. Furthermore, there is no scientific evidence on usability of any Turkish Universities’ SIS in the literature. Thus, this study will help to fill this gap. 2. STUDY CONTEXT 2.1. Organizational Setting Tested system was one of the foundation universities’ SIS in Turkey. The university has over twenty thousand students. Furthermore, this SIS is only the system that is used by the university’s students. Through this system, the students can get information about announcements about their deparments, manage their personal datas, review their academic performance as well as course histories. The SIS provides also course enrollment and communication between students and their advisors. Tested system used by all departments’ students as well as academics. In this study, user emotions, performance and perceived usability were investigated from students’ perspectives. 2.2. Objective Firstly, participants were asked to perform a number of tasks on the tested system. After that, they were asked to answer Emotion Word Prompting List (EWPL) and System Usability Scale (SUS) to get their emotions and perceived usability about the system, respectively. These questionnaires were developed in English so that they were unsuitable for Turkish users. Therefore, they were translated into the Turkish language (with permission of the EWPL’s and SUS’ main authors; Professor Dr. Helen Petrie and Dr. John Brokee, respectively) by using professional techniques and reliability and validity studies of them were established to make them suitable for users from Turkey. Then, performance evaluation and demographic questionnaires were carried out. Quantitative and qualitative data were collected from only six students since the main goal of this pilot experiment was before experimenting large student groups to identify possible problems. 3. METHOD 3.1. Study Design The students completed one set of tasks based on an artificial scenario in a laboratory setting. Quantitative and qualitative analyses, including one list of artificial scenario, SUS, EWPL, performance evaluation test, demographic information and overall assessment questionnaries were applied to six students. In this study, the SIS user interface was displayed on 15.6 inch WLED monitor with 1920 by 1080 pixel resolution using Windows 10 via Google Chrome browser. All students were participated to the study in computer laboratory of the Center for Information Systems at the university. There were one facilitator (one of the authors of this paper) and a participant at each case of the experiment. At the beginning of the evaluation session, the participant signed an informed consent form, acknowledging that: participation is voluntary, and that volunteers have the right to stop participating at any time. The participants were then instructed to read the printed task description and encouraged to think aloud as they completed each task. The facilitator observed the participant and also guided them throughout the session. 3.2. Participants There is a debate how much participant is needed to conduct a usability test. It is widely assumed that five participants enough for usability studies. For example Faulkner (2003) informed that some of the randomly selected of five participants found 99% of the usability problems. In this study, pilot test was conducted to six participants. Aged of participants ranged from 21 to 26. There were three females and three males. Besides, there were five undergraduate students and one graduate student. Their majors were International Finance, International Trade and Business and Economy. Their graduate point averages (GPA) are as the following; two of the participants’ GPA were between 3.00 and 3.49, one of the participant’s GPA was between 2.50 and 2.99, two of the participants’ GPA were between 2.00 and 2.49 and one of the participant’s GPA was under the 2.00. Four of the participants described their computer skills as intermediate level and two of the participants described their computer skills between intermediate and advanced levels. One of the participants mentioned that s/he is confident about using the computer and five of the participants stated that their confidence in the use of computers could change depending on the given task. All of the participants indicated that they are using the Internet everyday and their daily computer usage ranged from one hour to eight hours. Lastly, three of the participants stated that they are using the tested SIS several times a week and the other three of the participants stated that they are using the tested SIS several times a month. 3.3. Test Scenarios Although both academics and students of the univeristy use the SIS application, they have different academic responsibilities and therefore use different templates provided by the application. Since only this study was performed to get students perspective about the system, only academic tasks commonly performed by them were selected. One list of artificial test scenorious was given each participant. These tasks are shown in the following table (See Table 1). Table 1 Artificial Tasks on the Test Scenario Task Number Task and Context 1 Login with your username and password. 2 You want to access the transcript. Please provide the page you need to use to perform this action. 3 You want to send a message to your academic advisor through the system. Please provide the page you need to use to perform this action. 4 You want to access help videos about the system. Please find out how to follow this path. 5 You want to change your login password. Please find out how to follow this path. 6 You want to choose a course from your department. Please provide the page you need to use to perform this action. 7 You want to choose a course that is not associated with your department. Please provide the page you need to use to perform this action. 8 You want to see deadline of the financial approval. Please provide the page you need to use to perform this action. 3.4. Usability Analysis In this pilot study, any software packages that records desktop activity on the user’s computer with a video camera to record the user’s facial expression, captures all system events, including mouse clicks, time spent on each task, web page changes, onscreen text, error types and counts, or participant comments were not used. Tested system’s usability was evaluated through questionnaries, performance measures and participants’ overall asessment responds. Denizhan Demirkol, Cagla Seneler 3.5. Outcome Measures 3.5.1. Emotion Word Prompt List (EWPL) Participants’ immediate emotional reactions to the website were measured using a 16 item scale of emotion words commonly used to describe reactions to web sites, the Emotional Word Prompt List (EWPL). Participants rated each emotion word in response to the question “To what extent did the website make you feel each of the following?” on a 5 point scale (from 1 = Not at all to 5 = Very). EWPL consists of 9 positive, 6 negative and 1 ambiguous word. EWPL is developed by Petrie and Harrison (2009). EWPL was the one of two techniques that Petrie and Precious (2010) used in their studies to develop simple yet effective methods for obtaining user experience of websites and other interactive technologies. It was found that the use of EWPL helps users to express their emotional reactions to websites. According to Petrie and Harrison (2009) EWPL can be effectively used as a rating scale measure to be completed after interaction with a website, which is a very efficient method of measuring emotional reaction to a website. Turkish version of the EWPL was completed by each participant at the end of testing session. 3.5.2. Performance Measures Two performance metrics used in the study: 1. Task success rate : It measures the percentage of a given task that participants successfully complete without any significant errors. These errors result in an incorrect or incomplete outcome. 2. Percentage of correct answers: A 5-point, 10-question test was conducted to measure the user performance. 3.5.3. System Usability Scale (SUS) In addition to emotional and performance measures, the system usability scale (SUS) was conducted to get participants’ perceived usability on the system. Usability puts in the center users and in order to evaluate usability of the Information Systems, it is a necessity to know users. According to several studies, most apparent way to learn about the usability of tested system is asking the participants about their experience with it (Tullis & Albert, 2013) and this can be fulfilled in a structured way by using a questionnaire (Macleod, 1994; Tullis & Albert, 2013). A variety of questionnaires have been used and reported in the literature for assessing the perceived usability of interactive systems, including SUS (Brooke, 1996), Questionnaire for User Interface Satisfaction (QUIS) (Harper & Norman, 1998) and Computer System Usability Questionnaire (CSUQ) (Lewis,1995). SUS was created in the 1980s by John Brooke at Digital Equipment Co. Ltd. (Brooke, 1996). SUS is potent, notorious and its use is well-established with more than 1200 publications (Brooke, 2013). SUS is a 10-item likert scale questionnaire that gives a universal view of subjective assessments of usability. SUS questionnaire has been widely used in the literature (Barnum, 2011; Brooke, 2013; Finstad, 2006; Tullis & Stetson, 2004; Tullis & Albert, 2013). That is why SUS was selected for assessing usability of the tested system. Turkish version of the SUS was completed by each participant at the end of testing session. 4. Results All participants were completed the evaluation sessions without any technical difficulties. Although number of participants of the pilot study is too small to generalize findings, results give some evidence that participants’ emotional reactions to SIS, and likes, dislikes and suggestions related with the aspects of the SIS differ based on their demographic information. To illustrate, female participants showed more negative emotions to SIS compared to male participants. Therefore, analyzing users’ emotional variations amongst different demographical groups is valuable because focusing on these variations has the potential to raise efficiency of user experiences with SIS. Evaluation Of A Student Information System (Sis) It can be also expected that users’ ratings of the usability of the SIS may differ depending on their demographic information. To illustrate, students with high GPA gave lower usability scores to SIS compared to students with low GPA. Findings also gave cues about other valuable findings. Firstly, positive emotions may bring high usability ratings of a SIS and negative emotions may bring low usability ratings for the SIS. Thus, focusing on users’ emotional reactions has a potential to raise SIS’ usability ratings. Participants’ overall SUS score was 58.5 which is marginal. Participants’ task success rate ranged from six to eight. Three of the participants task success were seven (87,5%), two of the participants’ task success were six (75%) and one of the participants completed all of the eight tasks (100%). Participants’ number of the correct answers ranged from five to 10. One of the participants replied five correct answers (50%), one of the participants replied six correct answers (60%), two the participants replied seven correct answers (70%), one of the participants replied nine correct answers (90%) and one of the participants replied 10 correct answers (100%). Although the number of participants are too small to perform analysis to get correlations between variables, it can be predicted that user performance have correlations with both user emotions and users’ perceived usability ratings. 5. Discussion It has previously been shown that the adoption and advanced system implementation of SIS has the potential to enhance the efficiency and quality of academic workflow. This pilot study sets ground for future usability studies for SIS. To generalize the outcomes from the pilot study, further study needs to be done with a wider range of users. With the wider data, more analysis can be done on users’ emotional reactions, performance, perceived usability and demographic information. Furthermore, with a large group it may be possible to use students’ demographic information to predict their preferences for some specific features on SIS. 5.1. Limitations of the study There were some important methodological limitations in this study. This study includes a usability test with a limited number of students in a single institution as they completed a limited number of academic tasks. Also students who are conversant with the system may customize his or her interface to a varying degree, which is not reflected in this study and may have influenced the results. Additionally, none of the usability software is used in this study. Thusly, it has not been captured important usability evaluation datas such as time spent on each task, mouse clicks, mouse movements, web page changes, onscreen text, error types and counts. In addition, eye tracking data may give more accurate clues about usability of the tested system. 6. Conclusion The main goal of this pilot experiment was before experimenting large student groups to identify possible problems. Furthermore, there is no scientific evidence on usability of any Turkish Universities’ SIS in the literature. So that, this study showed that this study’s method can be used to evaluate students’ emotions, performance and perceived usability on a specific SIS. This pilot study will serve as a baseline study for a future comparative usability evaluation of SIS in other institutions. This method can be applied to the evaluation of other academic applications as well. In order to obtain more significant results and to generalize findings, extended studies will include larger groups of students. Conflict of Interest The authors of this paper do not have any financial and personal relationships with other people or organizations that could inappropriately influence this work. Denizhan Demirkol, Cagla Seneler References Beale, R., & Peter, C. (2008). Affect and emotion in human-computer interaction (pp. 1-11). Berlin Heidelberg: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-85099-1_10 Brooke, J. (1996). SUS -A quick and dirty usability scale. Usability Evaluation in Industry, 189(194), 4–7. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.20701 Brooke, J. (2013). SUS : A Retrospective. Journal of Usability Studies, 8(2), 29–40. https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.R115.675280 Carcary, M., Long, G., & Remenyi, D. (2007). The Implementation of a New Student Management Information System ( MIS ) at an Irish Institute of Technology – An Ex Post Evaluation of its Success. Electronic Journal of Information Systems Evaluation, 10(1), 31–44. Retrieved from www.ejise.com Faulkner, L. (2003). Beyond the five-user assumption: Benefits of increased sample sizes in usability testing. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 35(3), 379–383. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03195514 Jordan, P. (1998). An introduction to Usabiliy. London: Taylor & Francis Ltd. Kim, J., & Moon, J. Y. (1998). Designing towards emotional usability in customer interfaces— trustworthiness of cyber-banking system interfaces. Interacting with Computers, 10(97), 1–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0953-5438(97)00037-4 Mukerjee, S. (2012). Student information systems – implementation challenges and the road ahead. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 34(1), 51–60. https://doi.org/10.1080/1360080X.2012.642332 Nielsen, J. (1993). Usability Engineering. Morgan Kaufmann Pietquin O and Beaufort R, 44(1/2002), 362. https://doi.org/10.1145/1508044.1508050 Nordaliela, M. R., Suriani, H., & Nathaniel, E. L. (2013). Usability Analysis of Students Information System in a Public University. Usability Analysis of Students Information System in a Public University, 4(6), 806–810. Petrie, H., & Harrison, C. (2009). Measuring users’ emotional reactions to websites. Proceedings of the 27th International Conference Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems CHI EA 09, 3847. https://doi.org/10.1145/1520340.1520582 Petrie, H., & Precious, J. (2010). Measuring user experience of websites: think aloud protocols and an emotion word prompt list. CHI’10 Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in …, 3673–3678. https://doi.org/10.1145/1753846.1754037 Tullis, T., & Albert, B. (2013). Measuring the User Experience: Collecting, Analyzing, and Presenting Usability Metrics: Second Edition. Measuring the User Experience: Collecting, Analyzing, and Presenting Usability Metrics: Second Edition. https://doi.org/10.1016/C2011-0-00016-9 An Evaluation of Privatization Effects on Employees: The Case of the Thermic Power Plant of Yatağan Cisel Ekiz Gokmen, Suleyman Girgin 1. Introduction There have been many developments concerning privatization in Turkey since the first regulation enacted back in 1984. Privatization efforts of State Economic Enterprises (SEEs) took a sharp increase especially after 2002. In many times, the privatization resulted in the replacement of some workers to other state enterprises while others remained to continue their work in the plant after the privatization. The study aims to evaluate the working conditions of those workers continue to work at the Yatağan Thermic Power Plant which was privatized on 01.12.2014. The issues covered in the paper are based on workers’ evaluation of work and income security, work security level and trade union freedoms. Another research question is to investigate whether there is any effect of the so-called Yatağan Resistance (held against privatization process continued for 447 days) on the signed Collective Labor Agreements after privatization in terms of gains and losses of employees. For this purpose, questionnaires were applied to 42 of 61 workers who continue to work at the privatized power plant. The findings indicate that Yatağan Resistance has a significant positive effect on the signed labour contract on behalf of employees. And also, a large majority of the employees stated that a protocol would not have been signed with them and their current rights would not continue after the privatization if the Yatağan Resistance had not been taken place. 1.1. Privatization and Privatization Applications in Turkey While privatization refers to the opposite of nationalization in legal terms, it refers, in economic terms, to the reduction of the share of the state in the economy and an end to its economic activities, Although many definitions exist, privatization can be defined under two general headings, narrow and broad definitions. In the narrow term, privatization is the transfer of ownership, management and control of commercial and industrial enterprises owned by the state to private individuals and organizations, in whole or in part. In the broad term, it is not only the transfer of state-owned enterprises to the private sector; as well as the reduction or abolition of state control or intervention on the functioning of the market for economic, social, financial and political reasons (Aktan, 1993: 9). Privatization practices in Turkey have been realized together with the January 24 Decisions, contain significant structural transformations for Turkey's economy, in parallel with the neo-liberal economic policies affecting the world economy from the 1980s and aimed at accelerating privatization, reducing public spending and minimizing the state (Sezgin, 2010). The first legal regulation for the privatization program in Turkey started with the enactment of the law No. 2983 on Promotion of Savings and Acceleration of Public Investments6, in 1984 (Öztm Tmer, 2004: 85). Since then, many legal arrangements have been made and there have been many developments concerning privatization in Turkey. As a result of these developments, the number of privatized State Economic Enterprises (SEEs) and privatization revenues increased. It is possible to evaluate the historical progress of the revenues since 1986, when privatization policies were implemented in two periods: 1986-2003 and 2004-2017. As can be seen in Table 1, as a result of the privatization process in Turkey, about $70 billion privatization revenues was obtained. 88% of this income was obtained between 2004 and 2017, which has resulted in consecutive economic growth rates and increasing per capita income. 6 Date of Acceptance: 28.02.1984, It was published in the Official Gazette dated 17.03.1984 and numbered 18344. Cisel Ekiz Gokmen, Suleyman Girgin Table 1. Privatization Revenues in Turkey (1986-2017) Periods Privatization Revenue (Billion Share (%) 1986-2003 8,2 11,8 2004-2017 61,0 88,2 Total (1986-2017) 69,2 100 Source: Republic of Turkey Prime Ministry Privatization Administration During this period between 2001 and 2018, 11 ports, 90 power plants, 41 enterprises, 11 hotel-social facilities, 4085 immovable properties, 37 mining sites, 4 ships, 6808 machinery-equipment, 155 name rights, brand and vehicle inspection services have been are customized. Finally, on February 20, 2018, Privatization Administration has decided to privatize 14 factories belongs to Turkey Sugar Factories Inc. The reason for the privatization has been shown that sugar factories, which left without any additional investment and maintenance since 2008, have not been modernized and profitable. As of February 2018, the tender processes of 3 ports, 6 power plants, 1 social facility, 2 mining sites and 159 immovable are ongoing7. 1.2. The Effect of Privatization on Employees The effect of privatization on employees is generally evaluated under three headings in the literature: impact on (i) employment, (ii) wages and (iii) personnel transferred to other institutions. However, only the first two topics were examined since the scope of this study is on workers who continue to work in the same workplace after privatization. According to the related literature, privatization has negative effects on employment, such as reduction in employment, increase in layoffs, unemployment (Bulut, 2008; Öztm Tmer, 2004), unionization rate (Bulut, 2008; Işıklı, 1994; Kpeli, 1997), working hours and subcontracting relations (Bulut, 2008), worsening of working conditions and weakening of job security and social security rights (Karabıyık, 2010). The volume of employment in Turkey has decreased by 13.8 % as a result of the privatizations so far. In the privatized workplaces, the rate of layoff and unionization is quite high, respectively 68.2% and 72% (Bulut, 2008:146). And also, privatization has a negative impact on wages such as a decrease in wages of employees, in particular with increasing utilization of subcontracting relations (Karabıyık, 2010; Öztm Tmer, 2004) which lead to greater insecurity for all working population. Although there are numerous researches on privatization in Turkey, privatization has generally examined in these studies related to gains of employers such as profitability, efficiency and effectiveness after the privatization. However, in these studies, the effects of privatization on workers have not been enough emphasized. The aim of this study is to evaluate the working conditions of workers that continue to work at the Yatağan Thermic Power Plant which was privatized in 2014. The issues covered in the paper are based on workers’ evaluation of work and income security, work security level and trade union freedoms. Another research question is to investigate whether there is any effect of the so-called “the Yatağan Resistance” (held against privatization process continued for 447 days) on the signed collective labour contract after privatization in terms of gains and losses of employees. In this sense, this work is expected to contribute to the privatization literature in Turkey. 2.Methodology Yatağan, Yeniköy and Kemerköy Thermic Power Plants, which are located within the borders of Muğla Province, started to operate respectively, in 1982, 1986 and 1993.The privatization of the Yatağan 7 Republic of Turkey Prime Ministry Privatization Administration, http://www.oib.gov.tr An Evaluation of Privatization Effects on Employees Yeniky-Kemerky Thermic Power Plants and Coal Mines (and the fight against it) started in 1996 for the first time. In 2000, the transfer of the power plants and coal mines to the South Aegean Energy Consortium, by the using the transfer of operational rights method8, had been on the agenda for 20 years. However, the implementation of privatization were stopped by the workers’ resistance and legal struggle taken against privatization and in many cases the courts prevented it on the grounds that “there is no principle of public interest” of privatization decisions. In the 2010 referendum, the authority to seek the public interest policy has been abolished in order to prevent the courts from stopping the privatization decisions. Thus, all legal barriers to privatization were eliminated. This time, Yatağan-Yeniky-Kemerky Thermic Power Plants and Coal Mines were auctioned by the Privatization Administration on 27.08.2013 with the “sales method”. Despite the fierce struggle during the process, on December 1, 2014, the sales decision of the power plants and coal mines was approved and the privatization was realized. Privatization affects the working conditions of employees who continue to their work in the same workplace and leave their jobs after the privatization. The scope of this study consists of mine workers who continue to work in the lignite section of Yatağan Thermic Power Plant after the privatization. In this context, 42 of the 61 workers who continued to work in the same workplace after the privatization were applied a specific questionnaire developed for this study, between the April and May of 2018. 3. Findings 3.1. General Features of Interviewers As the findings of the study shows, the average age of the interviewers, all are male, is 40 years old. The majority of the interviewees (83%) were high school graduates9. Only two of respondents had university degree. Two of the interviewees are single, others are all married. The average household size is approximately four persons. 8 It is the transfer of the right to operate the workplace under a certain period and conditions, without transferring the right of ownership. Within the framework of the law no. 4046, privatization practices have been applied in the privatization of ports bymeansoftransfer ofoperatingrights(Orkunoğlu, 2010:8). 9High school covers the grades of 9th to 12th. Cisel Ekiz Gokmen, Suleyman Girgin Table 2. General Features of Interviewers Interviewers (42) Age 39.97 Education Status Primary School 3 (7.14) Middle School 2 (4.76) High School 35 (83.33) Associate Degree 1 (2.38) License 0 (0.00) Graduate 1 (2.38) Marital Status Married 40 (95.24) Single 2 (4.76) Average Household Size 3.80 Note: The numbers in parentheses indicate percentages. 3.2. Working Status of Interviewers The Table 3 summarizes the working status of study participants, 9 identified themselves as workers without specifying their profession. Among the interviewees, 7 as heavy truck driver, 6 repairmen, 6 welding master and 6 machine operators. In addition, among the interviewers, there are also electrician, turning leveler, waiter, shunter and mine technician. The average number of years spent working at Yatağan Thermic Power Plants was of 12.5 years and an average monthly income was 3000 TL and a total household income of 3500 T An Evaluation of Privatization Effects on Employees Table 3. Working Status of Interviewers Job Interviewers (42) Worker 9 Heavy Truck Driver 7 Repair Master 6 Welding Master 6 Machine Operator 6 Electrician 4 Turning Leveler 1 Waiter 1 Shunter 1 Supervisory (Mine Technician) 1 Average Working Time (Years) 12.45 (7-35) Individual income (Monthly Average TL) 2961 (2.200-6.000) Household income (Monthly Average TL) 3500 (2.200 Note: The numbers in parentheses indicate the minimum and maximum values. 3.3. Changes after Privatization The study examines the effects of privatization on working life by comparing the conditions signed in the collective labor agreements pre and post privatization. The Table 4 summarizes the changes occurred in the various areas of working life post-privatization. Field research findings revealed that there was no change after privatization in the interviewers' wage levels, working conditions, workplace positions, working times, and also in kind and in cash assistance, shuttle buses service, in the quality of social services (such as lodging, guest house etc.) and the behavior and attitudes of business managers. Furthermore, a significant number of interviewers stated that after the privatization, the company-provided meals worsened, but lodging fees and occupational health and safety practices were improved. Cisel Ekiz Gokmen, Suleyman Girgin Table 4. Changes after Privatization Note: The numbers in parentheses indicate percentages. Muc h better Som ewhat better Stay ed the same Som ewhat worse Muc h worse Wage/Salary 2 (4.76) 5 (11.90) 33 (78.57) 1 (2.38) 1 (2.38) Working conditions 2 (4.76) 3 (7.14) 28 (66.67) 9 (21.43) 0 (0.00 ) Position at work 3 (7.14) 3 (7.14) 35 (83.33) 1 (2.38) 0 (0.00 ) Working time 1 (2.38) 1 (2.38) 36 (85.71) 4 (9.52) 0 (0.00 ) Benefits in kind (charcoal assistance, clothing etc ) 1 (2.38) 1 (2.38) 37 (88.10) 3 (7.14) 0 (0.00 ) Cash benefits (child, education, etc.) 0 (0.00) 1 (2.38) 41 (97.62) 0 (0.00) 0 (0.00) Workers’ shuttle buses 1 (2.38) 2 (4.76) 32 (76.19) 7 (16.67) 0 (0.00 ) Food provided in the workplace 0 (0.00 ) 2 (4.76) 21 (50.00) 18 (42.86) 1 (2.38) Level of utilization of social services (such as lodging guest house) 7 (16.67) 14 (33.33) 20 (47.62) 1 (2.38) 0 (0.00 ) The quality of social services (such as lodging guest houses) 5 (11.90) 7 (16.67) 16 (38.10) 14 (33.33) 0 (0.00 ) Lodging fees 11 (26.19) 27 (64.29) 4 (9.52) 0 (0.00) 0 (0.00) Occupational health and safety practices 6 (14.29) 22 (52.38) 13 (30.95) 1 (2.38) 0 (0.00 ) Trade union activities 2 (4.76) 11 (26.19) 26 (61.90) 2 (4.76) 1 (2.38) Behaviors and attitudes of business managers 2 (4.7) 3 (7.14) 36 (85.71) 1 (2.38) 0 (0.00 ) Table 5 compares the Collective Labor Agreements signed pre-and post-privatization. Accordingly, the Collective Labor Agreement signed after privatization, is more improved and included much more advantageous clauses in the terms of occupational health and safety practices and social facilities, compared to the pre-privatization Collective Labor Agreement. However, it is not advantageous in terms of company-provided meals in the workplace. In other matters (wages, working conditions, working hours, kind-cash benefits and workers’ shuttle buses), there is no advantage or disadvantage in the collective bargaining agreements signed before and after the privatization. In summary, as a result of the collective labor agreement signed after privatization, it is observed that the working conditions of the workers have not gotten any worse. The An Evaluation of Privatization Effects on Employees Yatağan Resistance, which will be briefly summarized below, is the main factor behind this positive and unexpected continued satisfaction of workers. Table 5. Comparison of the Collective Labor Agreements Signed Pre-and Post-Privatization Collective Labor Agreements signed after Agreements signed before privatization is, privatization according to Collective Labor Quite Advantageous Advantage ous Same Disadvantageous Quite disadvantage In terms of fee 0 (0 9 (21.43) 29 (69.05) 4 0 (0 In terms of working conditions 1 (2 5 26 (61.9) 9 (21.43) 1 (2.38) In terms of working time 2 (4.76) 2 31 (73.81) 7 0 (0 In terms of benefits 0 (0 2 34 (80.95) 6 0 (0 In terms of cash benefits 1 2 34 (80.95) 5 (11.90) 0 (0 In terms of social facilities (lodging, guest house etc) and their monetary counterparts 5 (1 25 9 (21.43) 1 2 (4.76) In terms of occupational health and safety practices 6 (14.29 21 (50.00) 15 (35.71) 0 (0. 0 (0 In terms of workers’ shuttle buses 1 (2.38) 1 29 (69.05) 11 0 (0 In terms of food provided in the workplace 0 (0 3 20 (47.62) 18 (42.86) 1 (2.38) Note: The numbers in parentheses indicate percentages. 3.4.Yatağan Resistance and the Importance of Trade Union Organization The fight against privatization in Yatağan lasted 18 years (1996-2014). In this sense, Yatağan Resistance is the longest-standing resistance that puts privatization directly on its main target. During the 447 days between, the hardest struggle was given. The resistance began with the will of workers. And also, the collective will of the workers has decided how and in what condition the resistance would be terminated. A protocol was signed on the December 5th, 2014 with the company that bought Yatağan Thermal Power Plant and Coal Mines (Elsan Electric). The protocol that ended the resistance was recorded with the approval of all workers, as a result of the transparent negotiations conducted with the commission selected by the mine business managers and the workers. Table 6 summarizes the participants' views on Yatağan Resistance. Accordingly, the majority of the interviewees stated that the protocol signed after privatization and the continuation of the collective bargaining rights and also the increase of 4-C period from 6 months to 2 years after the privatization were the acquisition of the Yatağan Resistance. The vast majority of the interviewees also stated that the collective bargaining agreement and the implementation of the protocol depend on trade union organization, and that if the protocol was not signed after the transfer, their rights would not continue. Cisel Ekiz Gokmen, Suleyman Girgin Table 6. Opinions about Yatağan Resistance Note: Numbers in parentheses indicate percentages. Stro ngly Agree Agree Undeci ded Disagr ee Strong ly Disagree The protocol signed after the privatization is a gain of Yatağan Resistance. 21 (5 0.00) 18 (4 2.86) 1 (2.38) 00) 0 (0. 76) 2 (4. The continuation of my Collective Labor 21 16 5 0 0 Agreements rights after the privatization is (5 (3 (1 (0. (0. the acquisition of Yatağan Resistance. 0.00) 8.10) 1.90) 00) 00) The increase in the 4-C period from 6 23 13 2 3 1 months to 2 years is the result of Yatağan (5 (3 (4. (7. (2. Resistance. 4.76) 0.95) 76) 14) 38) The implementation of the Collective 22 19 1 0 0 Labor Agreements and the protocol depends (5 (4 (2. (0. (0. on trade union organization 2.38) 5.24) 38) 00) 00) If the protocol was not signed after the 23 12 2 3 2 privatization, our rights today would not (5 (2 (7. (4. have continued. 4.76) 8.57) (4.76) 14) 76) Table 7 discusses the importance of trade union organization in various aspects. It shows that, the majority of the interviewees believe that trade union organization is important or even very important in terms of the protection of current rights, obtaining new rights, being and acting in organized power and solidarity. Table 7. Opinion on Trade Union Organization and Rights State the importance of trade union organization in the following areas. Very importan t Imp ortant Undec ided Not importan t Not very importan t In terms of protection of current rights 18 (42.8 21 2 (4.76) 0 (0.00 0 (0.00) In terms of obtaining new rights 17 22 2 (4.76) 0 (0.00 0 (0.00) In terms of being organized power 21 17 3 (7.14) 0 (0.00 0 (0.00) In terms of solidarity 21 18 2 (4.76) 0 (0.00 0 (0.00) Note: 1 person has not responded to this question. 4. Discussion The study aims to evaluate the working conditions of workers who continue to work at the Yatağan Thermic Power Plant which was privatized on 01.12.2014. The study also aimed to investigate whether there is any effect of the Yatağan Resistance on the signed collective labour contract after privatization in terms of gains and losses of employees. For this purpose, questionnaires were applied to 42 of 61 workers who continue to work at the privatized power plant. The findings indicated that Yatağan An Evaluation of Privatization Effects on Employees Resistance had a significant positive effect on the signed labour contract on behalf of employees. And also, a large majority of the employees stated that a protocol would not have been signed with them and their current rights would not continue after the privatization if the Yatağan Resistance had not been taken place. Although the Yatağan Resistance, lasted for 447 days, did not reach its main goal against the privatization of the workplaces, it is an important gain in the sense of transferring resistance and struggle culture to the future. Although the workplaces were transferred to the private sector, employer representatives could only enter the workplace after accepting and signing the demands of the worker with a protocol. And also, the political power has increased the 4-C period from 6 months to 2 years as a result of the Yatağan Resistance. Even this is a result of resistance in itself. In summary, this process has resulted in gain in terms of Yatağan workers. However, our country has lost as a result of privatization in the macro dimension. Although the interviewers stated that the occupational health and safety practices were improved after privatization in Yatağan Thermic Power Plant, on July 19, 2018 a disaster occurred, as a proof that the health and safety improvements were not resulted in structural changes. This is the first disaster in the 36-year-old thermal power plant and was realized after the privatization. This disaster, in which 2 workers died and 10 workers were injured as a result of the collapse of the coal delivery channel, reveals that the most negative effect of privatization on employees is the threat of life safety and exposes the necessity of urgent expropriation of all privatized institutions. 5. References Aktan, C. C. (1993). Kamu ekonomisinden piyasa ekonomisine özelleştirme. Ankara: Takav Matbaası. Bulut, K. (2008). Özelleştirme politikalarının istihdam boyutu ve enerji sektörü. Retrieved at March 02, 2018, from http://www.emo.org.tr/ekler/0a0a1beaf4d6304_ek.pdf Işıklı, A. (1994). Özelleştirme ve sendikalar. Özelleştirme tartışmaları. İstanbul: Bağlam Yayıncılık. Karabıyık, İ. (2010). Türkiye’de özelleştirmenin çalışma hayatı üzerinde etkileri. Hukuk, Ekonomi ve Siyasal Bilimler Aylık İnternet Dergisi, 98, 1-13. Küpeli, B. (1997). Özelleştirme, yaşanan işten çıkarmalar ve sendikasızlaştırma örnekleri. Türk-İş Dergisi, 24-34. Orkunoğlu, I. F. (2010). Özelleştirme ve alternatifleri. Akademik Bakış Dergisi, 22, 1-22. Öztm Tmer, E. (2004). Türkiye’de özelleştirmenin ücret ve istihdam üzerindeki etkisi. (Unpublished master thesis). T.C. Ankara Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Çalışma Ekonomisi ve Endüstri İlişkileri Anabilim Dalı, Ankara. Republic of Turkey Prime Ministry Privatization Administration. (2018). Privatization revenues. Retrieved at March 05, 2018, from http://www.oib.gov.tr Sezgin, Ş. (2010). Politika transferi ve Türkiye’de özelleştirme. Dumlupınar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 27. Retrieved from http://dergipark.gov.tr/dpusbe/issue/4769/65598 Evolution of Human Resources Management Practices in Japanese Companies Osman Bayraktar 1. Introduction Management is a universal phenomenon. But management practices like other social phenomena are also influenced by the culture and values of societies. These are the distinguishes management practices from each other and give them originality. For this reason, it is possible to mention a European style, a Chinese management style, a Japanese management style, or the American management style. This article firstly touched on the national and historical qualities that form the basis of Japanese management style, especially in the field of human resources. Then, the deep financial crisis in Japan in the 1990s and how human resources management practices affected the understanding and practices that became more evident after 2000 years are explained. Sources and data that can be accessed on the internet were used in this article. This is a qualitative study in the form of a literature review. With a history dating back to thousands of years, it is possible to take the concept of Japanese management style from the last quarter of the nineteenth century, the great breakthrough of the country, until the Meiji period. However, as this issue is addressed in terms of human resource management; it will focus on post-World War II, when Japanese enterprises make great strides in the industry and more on the post-1990 period. 2. The Impact of National Cultural Values in Japan Management Practices National culture is a factor that determines people’s mentality, the ways of thinking, feelings, and behaviors from their childhood to their adulthood (Hofstede, 2001). In other words, the national culture deeply affects the way people live where in the Japanese context, where the culture is really archaic and complex, it is really important in the locals’ lives. Here, Confucianism is one of the most important elements of the Japanese culture and as the other elements of the national culture, directly affect the business life as it is the case for the other parts of the daily life (Haghirian, 2010). Specifically, in terms of business life, we can see the reflection of the Confucian values in the emergence of Japanese HRM (Keizer and et al, 2017). 3. Basic Characteristics of Traditional Japan Human Resources Management The three primary characteristics of the Japanese management style, which are associated with national cultural codes, are (Dalton & Benson, 2002): (1) Lifetime employment, (2) Seniority-based payment, and (2) Company Unions. 3.1. Lifetime Employment In Japanese culture, which has a collectivist character, when people enter an enterprise, they become members of a society beyond entering a business (Vaszkun & Tsutsui, 2012). Just as it is hard for an individual to join a new family, it is difficult to get started in a Japanese organization. As a common practice, businesses take staff only once a year in April (Reports, 2012). The candidate pool is made up of people who have just completed their university or have not yet completed their education. Pauses after college are not considered eligible for the candidates for employment. Leading qualities sought in candidates are not knowledge and experience, but educability and consistency. The selection phase takes a long time. Candidates are subjected to interviews with many people. Once you have entered a job, you are now freed from worries about your health and careers as a member of that community. It is difficult to leave a job as much as it is difficult to get a job. Because it is very difficult for a person to find a job at an intermediate level in another business. There are a number of advantages of the practice of lifetime employment for both employees and the company. The company benefits from this practice as the stability of lifetime employment inspire Osman Bayraktar devotion and loyalty in employees, which in turn generates improved employee performance. Employees are also provided with continual training in all areas of the company to the company throughout their career (Haghirian, 2010). Lifetime employment also leads to a decreased turnover rate for the company, which means that talent is retained within the company, so the company receives a return on the human resources that it has invested in. For employees, the primary advantage of lifetime employment is stability – employees are guaranteed to receive a pension after retirement. Lifetime employment also provides a strong platform for career development and steady salary increases (Powell, 2016). 3.2. Seniority-based Payment The most important factor determining the fee in the traditional Japanese HRM system is seniority. Therefore, all candidates will receive an almost equal salary when starting out. The wages of the quiche increases only until the age of 45 due to seniority. 45 years is an important turning point in working life. At this stage, top management leaves the others. Others are retired when their working time expires (Drucker, 1971). As of 2017, the retirement age in Japan is 62. It is foreseen to be raised to 65 in 2025 (Rodionova, 2016). 3.3.Company Unions All employees of the firm, with the exception of those in managerial positions above a certain rank, were represented by a single union. These unions tend to have a harmonious relation with management to avoid disruption to the firm’s operations. These employment practices created strong ties between the firm and its employees and contributed to employee commitment (Keizer and et al, 2017). The other authors these five key characteristics of Japanese HR Management (Dordevic, 2016): (a) Collective decision making, (b) Discreet performance appraisal, (c) Strong sense of obligation to colleagues and superiors, however to a certain extent discrimination against women, (d) Commitment to high quality, (e) Loyalty and long-term commitment to organization. The comparison of traditional Japanese Human Resource Management with American-style human resource management is given in Table 1. Table 1. Comparison of US Style Traditional HRM Model/Japanese Style Traditional HRM Model US HRM Model Japanese HRM Model Recruitment and Selection Training Compensation Job Assignment Job Security Labor Union Personnel Management Minimum screening in hiring Little company training Job-based wages Narrowly defined jobs and rigid job assignments Frequently layoffs and limited job security based on seniority rights Non-cooperative labor-management relations Major status distinctions between white-collar and blue-collar employees Selective once-a-year recruitment of new graduates Extensive company training and education Periodic pay raises and internal promotion based on evaluations Flexible job assignments and small-group activities Employment security until the age of mandatory retirement Enterprise union and labor-management consultations Unified personnel management of white-color and blue color employees Source: Chiaki Moriguchi, (2014). Japanese-style human resource management and its historical origins. Japan Labor Review, 11(3), 58-77. Evolution of Human Resources Management Practices in Japanese Companies 4. Stages of Change in Japanese Human Resources Management Practices After World War II, Japanese human resource management practices are divided into different periods by schoolers (Vaszkun & Tsutsui, 2012). For the purposes of this article, the period of change in Japanese human resource practices were chosen as 1945-1960; 1960-1973 period; 1973-1990 period; four rounds, 2000 and later. 1945-1960 Period: The emergence of footfall after the Great War. With the defeat of the Second World War, Japan was left with a hundred cases to pay for large war reparations. This situation led to a great work enthusiasm in society instead of despair. The lack of natural resources makes management skills and human ability in the foreground. 1960-1973 Period: Management practices that amaze the world. It is the period called 'Miracle of Japanese Management' in the world. The most brilliant reflection of the collective Japanese culture on the subject of management is that total quality practices have become widespread in this period. American scientist Edward Deming, who has not had the opportunity to apply quality considerations in America, has had the opportunity to apply these ideas to Japanese businesses. 1973-1990 Period: The oil crisis is making an economic change. Because of energetic high external dependence Japan was one of the countries most affected by the 1973 oil crisis. High energy costs have weakened competitive power, and many businesses have had to narrow down. 1990-2000 Period: The effects of the great financial crisis. The 1990s is widely known in Japan as the ‘lost decade (Olejniczak, 2013)’. A drop of nearly 50% in the value of the Nikkei Stock Index triggered a series of financial institutions bankruptcies as well as the spiral of so-called ‘bad debts’ which ultimately led to economic growth falling to 1% percent (Erdnmez, 2002). In this period Japanese multinationals increasingly moved parts of production out of Japan. Benson ve Dabroux (2004) states that the financial crisis in 1990s caused change in six fields in the Japanese Human Reseources applications: (1) The diversification of remuneration and promotion practices, (2) Performance rather than seniority coming to the form in terms of payments and career, (3)The increase in the interest to the concept of competency which includes knowledge, skill, behavior and attitude within itself. (4) Payments evaluated in annually. According to this system, it is not guaranteed to have the rise in the wage got in a year to be bot in the coming years. (5) Collective bargaining system changing for the benefit of the employer. In this new term, while the share that the employees get because of their seniority decreases, the guarantee of jobs is also weakened. (6) The changing role of unions in the enterprises. Enterprise unions used to represent the workers working in an enterprise regularly. After 1990s they were directed to take the huge number of young employees that work in small businesses and defend their rights. Years 2000 and Beyond: Disengagement from traditional human resources management practices. The change that began in the 1990s with the enforcement of more foreign dynamics in the Japanese economy has begun to lead to structural changes in human resource management practices since the years of 2000. The dynamics that force change after the 2000s are; Japanese businesses operating in different countries and multinational companies operating in Japan: Foreign enterprises investing in Japan experienced difficulty in finding employees from mid-levels because of the conventional Japanese management values. Change in the cultural values: The new generation of Japanese youth started to abandon the understanding of grounding on seniority in the wages and promotions, which were forced by the conventional Japanese management system; and the expectation of rewarding according to talents have come to the front. The need for businesses to go downsizing: Businesses experiencing difficulty in competition, in order to reduce expenses were obliged to downsize. And this damaged the principle of life-time employment, which is one of the three elements of conventional Japanese management. The weakening of enterprise unionism: There are some aggregate data that suggest that Japanese trade unions’ bargaining position has been significantly weakened during the post-bubble period. For example, there has been a major decline in trade union membership from more than 30% in the 1970s to 18.5% in 2009 (Keizer and et al, 2017). Osman Bayraktar 5. New Approaches to Japan Human Resources Management Practices Economic changes and changes in cultural values have resulted in some of the traditional Japanese human resources management being forbidden. New aspects of Japanese human resources management are as follows. 5.1. Change in the Form of Employment One of the basic principles of the traditional Japanese management, lifelong employment seems to be limited only to the employees of the core staff. Instead, two new forms of employment have become widespread: temporary workers and contract workers. Employees' social rights are very high with the discontinuous employment contract in Japanese businesses. From the point of view of the enterprises, to high cost applications. For this reason, enterprises are trying to keep the core number as small as possible. Temporary workers are called only once and are sent back when the job is over. These qualified employees are provided by the subcontractors’ channel. Employees who are contract workers are invited for more specialized jobs and contracted in this regard. When the contract is over, the relationship with the business is also over. Part-time jobs have no job security, pay a lot less, and their holders will not receive any bonuses, a pension plan, or national health insurance (Haghirian, 2010). The results of the Labor Force Survey conducted by the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications show that while in 1990 non-regular workers accounted for 20.2% of the total number of employed workers, this percentage rose to 26.0% in 2000, 33.7% in 2010, and 37.5% in 2015 (www.jil.go.jp, 2017). Table 2. Type of Employment Contracts Type of Employ Wages Bonuses Basis for employm ees promotio ent eligible n/ advance ment Core Open- Manager Monthly Specified Promotion group ended ial salary or rate to managerial of employm career yearly and ranks; pay long-term ent track, remunera sliding increase employ contract core- tion scale for based on ees (A) technical package; performa job occupati ability nce performan ons based ce wages; qualificati wage ons incremen t Special Fixed- Specialis Yearly Sharing Evaluatio ists (B) term t remunera of n of employm occupati tion company performan ent ons package; performa ce contract (plannin performa nce g, nce results sales, wages; no R&D, etc.) wage increment Flexibl Fixed- Clerical, Hourly Specified Switch to e term technica wages; rate higher workfo employm l, Job-based ranking rce (C) ent position Evolution of Human Resources Management Practices in Japanese Companies contract sales wages; no positions wage incremen t Source: Keizer, A., Umemura, M., Delbridge, R., & Morgan, G. (2017). Japanese management 20 years on, www.research.manchester.ac.uk. Ono (2010) states that the life-time employment, which is mentioned to be one of the three elements of the Japanese management system was only valid for only a small group only in practice. According to Ono, only 20% of the firms with more than 500 employees where employed life-time. From seniority to merit-based systems. The youth presenting their skills in a shorter term and expectation of wages directs the businesses to establish performance based payment systems rather than seniority based payment systems. The elements that distinguish overall performance-based totally HRM practices from traditional Japanese HRM practices are: (1) weakening of a seniority structure and an potential improvement structure in worker grades and compensation practices; (2) proportional wage expenses in accordance with overall performance; and (3) strict and particular evaluation of individual results and performance (Sekiguchi, 2013). 5.2. The Decline of Enterprise Unions In Table 3, the change in the number of Company Unions and union members in the term from 1990 to 2015 are shown. In 25 years, the number of unions regressed to 39% and the number of members to 32%. The most important reason for the decrease of the number of union members while the number of employees in the country is increasing is that the workers in the temporary statute do not enroll to the company union (Aoki, Delbridgeb, & Endob, 2014). Table 3. Trends in Number of Labor Unions, Members and Organization Rate 1990 2000 2010 2013 2014 2015 Labor 72,20 68,73 55,91 54,18 53,52 52,76 Unions 2 7 0 2 8 8 Members 12,19 11,42 9,988 9,822 9,777 9,825 (1,000 3 6 persons) Estimate 25.2 21.5 18.5 17.7 17.5 17.4 d Organization Rate Source: www.jil.go.jp (2017). Japanese Working Life Profile 2016/2017. In recent years, there has been a growing gap in wage increases among companies in the same industry based on the companies’ performances. As well, unions have indicated that they may shift their focus away from wage increases and focus more on other areas such as job security and expanding membership in order to include part-time and contract workers (Firkola, 2006). 5.3. Less Investment in in-House Training. The increase in the proportion of temporary and contract employees has resulted in less resource allocated to training and training activities of the enterprises. 6. Discussion No matter how challenging external dynamics are, it is not so easy to break the influence of national cultures and traditional values on management practices. There have been significant changes in human resource management practices in Japan over the last quarter century, as described above. However, this should not be construed as the Japanese abandoning traditional management systems Osman Bayraktar altogether. Even if the business is willing, this is not a change that can be easily done. Moreover, Japanese businesses have largely made a consensus that they still depend on traditional practices. Interest in talent management in this regard is a good example. Talent management, one of the most talked-about topics in the American management style over the last decade, has not received much attention in Japanese business and Japanese management literature, as shown in Table 4. Table 4. Comparisons of the Characteristics of Modern Talent Management and Japanese Companies Characteristics of Characteristics of Traditional Japanese Human Modern Talent Resource Management System Management Trusting individual skills & strengths Emphasis on total degree of leadership Performance first Overwhelming sense of speed Accepting differentiation Supervisor’s commitment Ownership of individuals Emphasis on teams & organization, seldom “entrust to the power of individuals” Leadership can belong to only a handful Value not just performance, but also process & attitude In some cases process & attitude are prioritized over performance Long-term nurturing as presented by “one needs to work for at least 10 years to become a full-fledged professional” Equal management system based on the year one joins the company Nurturing is outside the supervisor’s mission A sense of security that “the company will not do me ill” Source: Naoko Ishihara (2016). Can human resource management systems in Japan shift to talent management? Japan Spotlight, 28-31. In Table 5, the reasons why the workers became unemployed between 2000-2005 are shown. 2009 and 2010 are the years where the number of leaves of employment is the higher as a result of the economic crisis in 2008. The detail that attracts attention in the table is the increase in the volunteer leaves of employment with the years passing. This data shows that Japanese people changed their manner towards employment. Especially housewives choose irregular working to take care of their children better. Lifetime work understanding of the people in the Japanese firms seems to be shaken majorly. In 2014, the government survey confirmed that half of the young employees underneath the age of 35 have been not running for his or her first company, as mid-career task changes have ended up more commonplace (Oi, 2016). Evolution of Human Resources Management Practices in Japanese Companies Table 5. Reason for Unemployment According Groups Reaso 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 n for 000 005 009 010 011 012 013 014 015 unemploy ment Total 32 29 33 33 28 28 26 23 22 0 4 6 4 4 5 5 6 2 Quit 10 10 14 13 10 10 90 73 65 job for 2 0 5 7 6 2 (3 (3 (2 involunta (3 (3 (4 (4 (3 (3 4.0) 0.9) 9.3) ry reasons 1.9) 4.0) 3.2) 1.0) 7.3) 5.8) Quit 10 11 10 10 97 10 96 90 89 job for 9 0 3 4 (3 1 (3 (3 (4 voluntary (3 (3 (3 (3 4.2) (3 6.2) 8.1) 0.1) reasons 4.1) 7.4) 0.7) 1.1) 5.4) Grad 18 16 14 16 15 16 15 12 10 uated (5 (5 (4 (4 (5 (5 (5 (5 (4 from .6) .4) .2) .8) .3) .6) .7) .1) .5) school Other 80 65 70 71 62 62 59 56 54 s (2 (2 (2 (2 (2 (2 (2 (2 (2 5.0) 2.1) 0.8) 1.3) 1.8) 1.8) 2.3) 3.7) 4.3) Source: www.jil.go.jp (2017). Japanese working life profile 2016/2017. It is stated that loyalty remains valued extremely by managers in Japan and is essential in the Japanese way of life due to that fact that winning have an impact on of Confucian philosophy (Vaszkun & Tsutsui, 2012). However, it is also apparent from the data that the employee loyalty will decline in alignment with lifetime employment and the youth generations in Japan will continue to demand price flexibility and numerous profession reports over loyalty to one organization. This is directly related to the fact that Japanese groups have internationalized and the global companies have entered Japan are bringing alternative human useful resource control practices (Powell, 2016). One of the most important problems that Japan will be obliged to compete with is the rate of increase in the number of elderly population. People over 65 are now expected to account for 60 per cent of Japan’s population by 2060, according to government’s estimates. The country could lose more than 27 million workers in future if it does not address some of the lowest birth-rates in the world, at just 1.4 children per woman (Rodionova, 2016). Low fertility rates and rising life expectancy are causing the ratio of Japanese workers to retirees to shrink. According to World Bank, between 2010 and 2040, the share of Japan’ working-age population will fall by more than 10 per cent (Debroux, 2016). Due to the decrease in population, Japanese companies have started to hire human resources from outside (Ishihara, 2016). 7. References Aoki, K., Delbridgeb, R., & Endob, T. (2014). Japanese human resource management in post-bubble Japan. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 25(18), 2551-2572. Benson, J., & Debroux, P. (2004). The changing nature of Japanese human resource management. International Studies of Managetment & Organisation, 34(1), 32-51. Dalton, N., & Benson, J. (2002). Innovation and change in Japanese human resource management. Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources, 345-362. Debroux, P. (2016). Elderly workers in Japan: The need for a new deal. Management Revue, 27(1-2), 82-96. Osman Bayraktar Dordevic, B. (2016). Impact of national culture on international human resource management. Ekonomske Teme, 45(2), 281-300. Drucker, P. F. (1971, March). What we can learn from Japanese management. Harvard Business Review. Erdnmez, P. A. (2002). Japonya mali krizi {Japanese fiscal crises}. İstanbul: Türkiye Bankalar Birliği. Firkola, P. (2006). Japanese management practices past and present. Economic Journal of Hokkaido Univ., 35, 115-130. Haghirian, P. (2010). Understanding Japanese management practices. New York: Business Expert Press. Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture`s consequences. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. Ishihara, N. (2016). Can human resource management systems in Japan shift to talent management? Japan Spotlight, 28-31. Keizer, A., Umemura, M., Delbridge, R., & Morgan, G. (2017). Japanse management 20 years on. Retrieved 12 30, 2017, from www.research.manchester.ac.uk: https://www.research.manchester.ac.uk/portal/files/37901468/FULL_TEXT.PDF Moriguchi, C. (2014). Japanse-style human resource management and its historical origins. Japan Labor Review, 11(3), 58-77. Oi, M. (2016, March 22). Japan seeks alternatives to its pay system. Retrieved 01 06, 2018, from http://www.bbc.com/news/35868599 Olejniczak, T. (2013). Japanese management: 50 years of evolution of the concept. Acta Asiatica Varsoviensia(26), 7-26. Ono, H. (2010). Lifetime employment in Japan: Concepts and measurements. Journal of The Japanese and International Economies(24), 1-27. Powell, M. (2016). Human resource management practices in Japan: Are they really changing? Merici, 2, 77-90. Reports, H. A. (2012). Japan, traditional employment practices in Japan. Tokyo. Rodionova, Z. (2016, March 13). Japan’s elderly keep working well past retirement age. Retrieved January 22, 2018, from http://www.independent.co.uk/news/business/news/japan-retirementpension-elderly-work-employment-age-a6909166.html Sekiguchi, T. (2013). Theoretical implications from the case of performance-based human resource management practices in Japan: management fashion, institutionalization and strategic human resource management perspectives. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 24(3), 471–486. Vaszkun, B., & Tsutsui, W. M. (2012). A modern history of Japanese management thought. Journal of Management History, 18(4), 368-385. www.jil.go.jp. (2017). Japanese Working Life Profile 2016/2017. Retrieved January 23, 2018, from http://www.jil.go.jp/english/jwl/2016-2017/all.pdf www.jil.go.jp. (2017). Labor Situation in Japan and its analysis detailed exposition 2016/2017. Retrieved January 22, 2018, from http://www.jil.go.jp/english/lsj/detailed/2016-2017.html www.stat.go.jp. (2017, December 26). Summary of the November 2017 survey results. Retrieved January 22, 2018, from http://www.stat.go.jp/english/data/roudou/results/month/index.htm The Reflections of Industry 4.0 on the Textile & Fashion Business Processes Evrim Kabukcu 1. Introduction Innovation is also about “new processes and new ways of doing things” that may not be obvious to customers but add significant value in delivering the services and products that customers require (Kellogg, 2002). The dynamic nature of textile & fashion industry has put pressure on companies to innovate, collaborate and to redesign business processes. With the redesign of the industrial processes according to industry 4.0 and technological advances, all the processes related to production and logistics may become more flexible, rapid and agile in textile & fashion value chains. 2.Towards Industry 4.0 Growing digitisation provides the launch pad from which we are lifting off into the “second machine age” (Brynjolfsson & McAfee 2014). This is due to the fact that data forms the material of this fourth industrial revolution (see figure 1). In the future, data will be ubiquitous and omnipresent. Whoever can access this limitless data treasure, will benefit enormously, above all from flexibility and efficiency. Industry 4.0 could become a result of this ongoing digitisation in which everything along the value creation chain is networked and all of the relevant information can be independently and directly exchanged between the individual chain links. Linking people, objects and systems can lead to dynamic, real-time-optimised and self-organising, cross-company value added networks that can be optimized according to different criteria, for example cost, availability and resource consumption (Plattform Industrie 4.0, 2014). Thus, the vision is about efficiency in its purest form: maximum flexibility with the perfect flow of value creation. Figure 1. Industrial Revolutions One to Four (Fraunhofer IAO, 2013; Buhr 2015) The term “Industry 4.0” was first introduced by the German Industry-Science Research Alliance (Forschungsunion) in 2011. It refers to digitising industrial production. The concept outlines the vision of a smart factory, which is characterized by the complete networking of all production parts and processes: real time control via ITC and the increased use of robots, which control themselves, are developments Evrim Kabukcu that should contribute to greater productivity through resource efficiency. The shift is already under way and the concept of Industry 4.0 is shaping the digital discourse in Germany (Buhr, 2015). The concept of a smart factory makes the rather abstract idea of Industry 4.0 easier. This is where the Internet of Things comes into play, i.e. nonhuman parties communicating with each other. That could be a plant sending out a signal that it needs new material and the smart factory automatically and independently forwarding this information. The communication between these “things” takes place through the Internet in a smart way. This is the core point about Industry 4.0 – the Process Knowledge Automation. The Process Knowledge Automation resolves and enables the problem that work-pieces don’t have the technical capabilities to communicate on their own transforming physical systems into “cyberphysical systems” (CPS), whereby the work-piece is the physical element and the Knowledge Automation is the digital element. The role of humans in CPPS (Cyber-Physical Production Systems), however, should not be disregarded, as highlighted in (Nelles et al., 2016). Industry 4.0 refers to the technological evolution from embedded systems to cyber-physical systems (CPS) capable of creating intelligent object networking and independent process management across real and virtual worlds (MacDougall, 2014). According to Gilchrist (2016), CPS integrates computation, networking, and physical processes allowing embedded computers and networks to monitor and control the physical processes. The term Industry 4.0 is used to define a set of technology transformations in systems and products design, production and distribution and to describe the productive process organization that are based on communicating technologies and devices. The industrial production has no longer to be considered as a sequence of separated phases, but as an integrated flow, that is made possible by digital technologies. The 5 pillars of Industry 4.0 are (Acimit,2017): 1.Speed: to reduce the time to market through innovation cycles and short product development 2.Quality: to improve the processes and to reduce the waste through the real time monitoring of the production 3.Flexibility: to make the offer more dynamic through the mass-customization in the production phases 4.Security: to optimize the security issues in order to avoid inactivity periods and cyber attacks 5.Efficiency: to increase the productivity with technologies and more intelligent services 3.Components of the Fourth Industry Revolution One of the key objectives of Industry 4.0 is to combine two principles that are actually opposites, strictly speaking – production line manufacturing and custom manufacturing – in a smart environment referred to as smart factory (Grieco et al.,2017). Smart factories will lead to changes in manufacturing and logistics processes (see figure 2). Initially, creating a perfectly functioning material flow systems is possible. Secondly, all processes between supplier and customer may be re-organized in terms of productivity (Grç,2018). Automation, robotics systems and autonomous behaviour of machines are the most signifficant factors of the smart production systems. “This is where the Internet of Things (IoT) comes into play, i.e. nonhuman parties communicating with each other. That could be a plant sending out a signal that it needs new material and the smart factory automatically and The Reflections of Industry 4.0 on the Textile & Fashion Business Processes Figure 2. Human-Machine Application (Fraunhofer IAO, 2013; Buhr 2015) independently forwarding this information. The communication between these “things” takes place through the Internet in a smart way. This is the core point about Industry 4.0 – the Process Knowledge Automation (Grieco et al.,2017). Thanks to IoT, physical objects are seamlessly integrated into the information network where they can become active participants in business processes (Shrouf et al., 2014). Cyber physical systems can be “defined as a technological system. It can give an opportunity for monitoring, and controlling all processes of the value chain simultaneously. This system can also be used for computation, optimization, and communication. With the use of these systems, all operations occurring in value chains can be optimized. These systems may lead to integration between physical industrial elements such as machines and cyber technologies. The integration of physical machines and cyber technologies can be possible with these cyber-physical systems. In this way, machines used in production processes can become more intelligent as well as factories and they can be defined as the smart system and the smart factories. Unlike traditional embedded systems designed as stand-alone devices, the focus in CPS is on networking several devices (Lee, 2008). Recently, big data becomes a term on everyone’s tongue. “Under the Industry 4.0 era, “intelligent analytics and cyber-physical systems are teaming together to realize a new thinking of production management and factory transformation. Using appropriate sensor installations, various signals such as vibration, pressure, etc. can be extracted. In addition, historical data can be harvested for further data Mining” (Lee et al., 2013). 4. Reflections of Industry 4.0 on Textile & Fashion Manufacturing Industry 4.0 is the vision of increasing digitisation of production. The concept describes how the socalled Internet of things, data and services will change in future production, logistics and work processes (Acatech, 2014). The fourth industrial revolution will begin in a very short time and will lead to a change in industrial, social and economic lives of people. This may create new industrial relations between capital and labour (Grçn, 2018). Industry 4.0 has recently become a frequent topic at a number of expert conferences and even in the mass media. It is typically discussed in the context of process productivity improvement but also in relation to the fear of job losses. The situation is unprecedented where for the first time in history white-collar jobs are under threat and high-qualification professional class faces the prospect of economic decline (Švingerová & Melichar, 2017). Evrim Kabukcu Over the last few years there have been gradual changes towards the new technology, but from now on, there is already a difference in the peace at which things need to change. Progress awaits no one, and all that is new must be absorbed as fast as possible. Virtual organizations are at the point in which all the strategies must be reorganized in order to keep up with the new demands coming from Industry 4.0: better knowledge, better and new specializations, soft skills, management and communication skills (Costache et al., 2017). The forth industrial revolution will transform the economic paradigm and the mechanisms for creating value that underpin it. Manufacturing has, in effect, switched from a mindset of mass production to one of mass customization. No longer is it based on scale and volume effects but on flexible and localized production situated close to centers of demand. It manufactures "on demand" and no longer creates inventory, instead dynamically adapting itself to demand. It is more predictive and auto-corrective and it involves less trial and error. Its logic is now focused not on the product but on usage, and it has also switched from a rigid form of labor organization, inherited from Taylorism, to a flexible form – enhancing the appeal of work as a result. It potentially represents a complete overhaul of the economic rationale behind business (Berger, 2016). Due to the intensive use of labor and the rising total costs, competitive capacity of world's manufacturing industry weakens. On the other hand, total adding added value which created in the value chains may be reduced as a result of increased costs. Industry 4.0 focuses on manufacturing activities related to the automotive industry. Actually, the need for new production techniques and approaches is much more in textile industry. Industry 4.0 will have a direct effect on producers and their labor force as well as on companies supplying manufacturing (Rßmann et al.,2015). Contrary to the discussions of the 1980s, today it is no longer about human versus machine. Rather, most of the scenarios revolve around a more complex relationship between humans and machines (Kurz, 2014; Ganz, 2014): 1. The automation scenario: systems direct humans. Monitoring and control tasks are taken over by technology. It prepares and distributes information in real time. Employees respond to the needs of cyber-physical systems (CPS) and take on primarily executive tasks. The abilities of lesser skilled workers are thereby devalued (see figure 7). 2. The hybrid scenario: monitoring and control tasks are performed via cooperative and interactive technologies, networked objects and people. The demands on employees increase because they have to be considerably more flexible. 3. The specialisation scenario: people use systems. CPS is a tool to support decision-making. The dominant role of the qualified workers is maintained (see figure 3). Figure 3. Qualification Requirements for industry 4.0 (Ganz 2014; Buhr 2015) The Reflections of Industry 4.0 on the Textile & Fashion Business Processes The guiding theme of the developments outlined above seems to be: “anything that can be digitised will be digitised”. Accordingly, the scenarios of future developments are pretty ambitious. The conceptions of how Industry 4.0 is to affect companies and sectors, economies and societies differ greatly. They can be summarised, however, into three perspective (Stephan, 2014; Buhr, 2015): 1. Disruption: Industry 4.0 enables completely new business and value creation models. 2. Progress: Industry 4.0 solves the problems of today with the technologies of tomorrow. 3. Destruction: Industry 4.0 is not new and lacks innovative approaches. Figure 4. Integration among value chain process and IoT (Grçn, 2018) One of the most profitable markets in the world is the fashion and lifestyle industry and it is defined to be a billion-dollar industry employing millions of professions all around the word. Fashion industry is one of the most dynamic supply chains in the modern world and due to this nature there are new challenges and many opportunities presented (see figure 4) With the fashion industry going global, consumers all over the world have been affected by this fast and constantly evolving industry (Bhardwaj & Fairhurst, 2010) disrupting consumer behaviour in the global market (Majeed & Rupasinghe, 2017). In textile & fashion industry, “observed increases in the level of labor use may cause increase in total costs. Also, more errors in manufacturing process may occur because of intensive labor use. More importantly, the new dominant role of customers has been affecting the manufacturing processes of the textile industry. Standard products are not preferred by today's customers. Usually, they demand personalized and customized products. In the near future, all textile industries will have to keep pace with these demands. Consequently, changes in manufacturing processes will be inevitable in the textile industry. In the near future, key technologies related to smart factories such as automation, machine to machine communication systems, and robotics technology will be essential for the improvement of the textile value chains as well as textile manufacturing systems (Grçn,2018). Throughout the history of fashion, many inventions have gone through a successful innovation process and were widely marketed thanks to good functionality and the ability to create value. Innovation is definitely important for the future development of fashion industry in the form of competitive businesses. Over time, the entrepreneurs’ role in the economy and their contribution to economic change, as well as their creativity, innovation, entrepreneurial and managerial aspects changed (Lowe & Mariott, 2006). Fashion brands for their part strive for innovation, differentiation and appeal. This is because the fashion business is essentially a forward-thinking sector and one of the core characteristics of fashion brands is innovation which has been an essential aspect of fashion business for centuries (Okonkwo, 2007). For this reason, we can say that industry 4.0 may support textile & Evrim Kabukcu fashion enterprises to solve their structural specific problems. Designing innovative processes according to industry 4.0 and technological advances, especially related to production and logistics, may become more flexible, rapid and agile in textile value chains. In this way, textile & fashion industries can give quick and effective responses to the customer's needs as a result of the new production and logistics process designs. Using high technology in production and logistics processes realizes transformation of the industry. Therefore, textile & fashion value chains should be re-designed and re-structured according to the new requirements and paradigms of the fourth industrial revolution in Turkey. 5. Conclusion Textile & fashion industry should be awake to the new paradigms on the brink of the fourth industrial revolution. In the future, becoming a smart factory will be the only way to meet specific customizeddemands. In this way, textile & fashion industry can solve its structural problems arising from intensive workforce and market ambiguities. Besides, they can increase the efficiency and the productivity in the whole value chain by providing cooperation and coordination of the system. 6. 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Majeed, M. A. A. & Rupasinghe, T. D. (2017). Internet of Things (IoT) Embedded Future Supply Chains for Industry 4.0: An Assessment from an ERP-based Fashion Apparel and Footwear Industry. International Journal of Supply Chain Management,6(1), 25-40. Nelles, J., Kuz, S., Mertens, A. & Schlick C. M. (2016). Human-centered design of assistance systems for production planning and control: The role of the human in industry 4.0 in Industrial Technology (ICIT), 2016 IEEE International Conference, 2099–2104 Okonkwo, U. (2007). Luxury Fashion Branding: Trends, Tactics, Techniques, New York:Palgrave Macmillan. Shrouf, F., Ordieres, J. & Miragliotta, G. (2014). Smart factories in Industry 4.0: A review of the concept and of energy management approached in production based on the Internet of Things paradigm,” in Proc. 2014 IEEE International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Engineering Management, 697-701. Svingerova, M. & Melichar, M. (2017). Evaluation of Process Risks in Industry 4.0 Environment, Proceedings of the 28th DAAAM International Symposium, pp.1021-1029, B. Katalinic (Ed.), Published by DAAAM International, ISBN 978-3-902734-11-2, ISSN 1726-9679, Vienna, Austria DOI: 10.2507/28th.daaam.proceedings.142 The Contribution of Public Relations Studies to Corporate Reputation in Health Care Institutions: Patient Satisfaction Study Sample Hatice Hale Bozkurt 1. Introduction Johanssen defines image as "the combination of all attitudes, knowledge, desires, feelings etc. associated with a certain opinion object", whereas Jung considers image as a thought towards an object, partly corresponding to the actual reality and partly representing the subject’s own stance (Okay, 2000, s.255). Image is an outcome of beliefs arising from a person’s first impression and perception pertaining to an object. Image is judgement impression or evaluation about a person or an organization finalized after a process of learning and perceiving. Corporate image, in its simplest terms, is impression based on knowledge and experience of an institution. According to another definition, corporate reputation is the combination of emotional and rational assessments by an organization or a group of people regarding a certain institution. (Peltekoglu, 2007, s.584). Corporate image is the visualization of people’s opinions formed when they contact a certain institution directly. It is an overall evaluation consisting of beliefs and feelings about this institution. A corporate’s image is formed by groups it is in contact with such as the public and its target audience and this image may undergo changes in time. Corporate image, which could be expressed as the sum of corporate outlook, corporate communication and corporate attitude, targets both internal and external audiences and carries out important functions like credibility and creating and maintaining trust. The image to be created inside and outside the organization should be in line with the reality so that it is convincing. In this respect, corporate image, consisting of a combination of these three elements, plays important roles for all upper level communication policies; thus it should not be viewed simply as a special means of communication (Peltekoglu, 1997, ss.126-127). Corporate identity comprises symbols and expressions like the publicized name to promote the organization, its logo and advertisement motto. Corporate image contains all visual, verbal and behavioral elements constituting the organization (Howard, 1998, s.4) To define shortly, when the connection between corporate identity and image is examined, corporate identity is the total of intentional or unintentional messages given, while corporate image could be considered as the public perception resulting from these messages (Theaker, 2006, s.137). Corporate image, described as the manner an organization is perceived by individuals, is acknowledged to constitute one of the premises of success in competition. Accordingly, institutions with favorable images are viewed as respectable, trustworthy and reasonable to work together with promising prospects on the part of target audiences. (Bakan, 2005, s.4). The primary path to success in competition-based sectors passes through the creation of a favorable corporate image to achieve customer satisfaction. Reputation conceptually symbolizes trust, respectability and credibility (Kadibesegil, 2006, s.118) As for corporate reputation, it encompasses values regarding a person’s perception of the organization’s image like authenticity, honesty, responsibility and integrity. Corporate reputation also includes corporate identity and elements of corporate image. Those who gain reputation in the society have more occupational prospects and opportunities to utilize wider resources (Solmaz, 2011, s.89). 2. Corporate Image and Reputation in Health Care Institutions Corporate reputation and image have a special meaning for medical institutions and hospitals. Because consumer choices and customer satisfaction have priority since ‘human health’ is the primary concern, Hatice Hale Bozkurt corporate reputation and image management in these institutions become even more significant (Satır, 2006, s.58). Patients prioritize corporate image in their choice of hospital or similar health care institutions; therefore, a medical organization is in a position to measure how it is perceived by the public and what its image is like. Effective execution of hospital services, minimization of problems faced, improving hospital efficiency and providing quality service are the major factors that have a bearing on the choices of the target audience. 3. Public Relations Studies İn Health Care Services Health care services are generally efforts for health protection and treatment of diseases (Kaya, 2007, s.48). One of the application fields of public relations is studies on identity and image. Corporate identity, in order to distinguish a certain institution from similar ones or its rivals, could be defined as an entity also made up of philosophy, design, communication and behavior as well.(Okay and Okay, 2002, s.607). One of the principal application fields of public relations is the management of corporate reputation. Corporate reputation, which is an abstract concept, is an integrative perception that depends on a variety of factors. Corporate reputation is made up of the whole activities made and not made regarding the target audience; therefore, reputation management involves the conscious management of all elements within the organization including activities, employees, partners and all the other constituents. A favorable reputation provides advantages for organizations in their relations with target audiences. For example, organizations having reputable reputation may enjoy more flexible conditions in their dealings with financial circles, they can increase prices of their products and services more comfortably or they might be able to suffer minimum losses during a crisis thanks to their favorable profile in the eyes of the target audiences (Yuksel, 2010, ss.119-120). To ensure this, organizations and institutions must constantly enhance, support and protect their reputation. Health care institutions with favorable reputation are supported by the citizens too and any undesirable circumstances become easier to cope with thanks to this reputation. One of the primary goals of public relations is to form a positive image of organizations in the minds of the public, increase the value of organizations and provide a general trust, understanding and contribution to the organizations. For the realization of this purpose, a very long period during which good activities are carried out needs to pass (Asna, 1993, s.15). As far as health care institutions are concerned, public relations “could be defined as the combination of all planned, continuous and communication-focused efforts aiming to establish mutually healthy, true and reliable relations with domestic and foreign customer groups and organizations, improve these connections, create favorable impressions on the public and unite with the society” (Tengilimoglu, 2001, s.305). Key words having similar attributes which are used in different definitions regarding public relations need to be remembered (Wilcox, et al., 2005, ss.6-7): a. Planned from the Beginning to the End: Public relations activities are performed willingly. They are designed to be influenced, gain understanding, provide information and collect feedback from those who have been influenced. b. Planned: Public relations activities are organized activities. Various problems are solved, logistic components associated with activities carried out at a certain time are also taken into consideration. It is a well-arranged study including research and analysis. c. Performance: Effective public relations is based on an individual’s or an institution’s performance and real policies. If an institution is not a good employer or not sensitive to the society’s interests and benefits, the amount of goodwill and support public relations could create cannot be increased. The Contribution of Public Relations Studies to Corporate Reputation in Health Care Institutions d. Public Welfare: The reason why a public relations activity is carried out is to serve public welfare and providing benefits for the organization is not easy at all. Ideally, public relations activity requires sequencing between the interests of the organization and the target audience. e. Two-Sided Communication: In public relations, distribution of information materials and collecting feedback are equally important. f. Management Function: Public relations is an essential element in the decisions of the senior management. After a decision is made, public relations involve not only providing information but also consultation and solution to problems faced. Under today’s conditions, it is impossible for an organization to survive without cooperating with and listening to the views of its target audience just as a government cannot hope to be long-lived within a sound democracy without concern for the public opinion and voter support. (Peltekoglu, 2007, s.167). The function that gives rise to this bridge of understanding between the hospital management and the target audience is public relations (Reichman 1968, ss.42-45). The executives of health care institutions have begun utilizing various public relations activities in order to increase service efficiency and ensure patient satisfaction. Today, together with advances and changes in health care, patients and relatives pay attention to the quality of service received, attitude of the medical staff, sufficiency of the hospital’s physical conditions and the hospital’s public relations activities carried out in their hospital choice. The purpose of the study is to draw attention to the significance of public relations activities carried out in health care institutions and determination of which variables are more effective in patients’ hospital choice. Today’s changing and developing market conditions force every institution to keep up with the new emerging conditions. Institutions failing to keep pace with these changes and developments are faced with very difficult circumstances in every respect. 4. Method In accordance with the study, a survey was conducted on citizens and relatives receiving service from Adnan Menderes University Hospital in order to determine the effect of public relations activities in hospitals on the patients’ hospital choice. The study is deemed important in a number of aspects which are: reasons behind the hospital choice of patients who are treated, importance of public relations activities in hospital choice, to what extent public relations activities have a bearing on the individuals, determination of what communication channels have been used for information and whether variables impacting on hospital choice differ depending on the socio-demographic background of patients. Limitations in the research, This study is limited to the determination of variables influencing the hospital choice of patients In the research, the survey was used as a means of data collection and it was conducted in February 2013. The scope of the study is limited to a total of 409 people who were individuals and relatives older than 18 receiving service from Adnan Menderes University Hospital. These individuals varied greatly from those who received polyclinic service to those who were hospitalized and their relatives. The conductors of the survey were Health Care Vocational School Nursing Department students. Since these survey conductors were actually nursing interns working in the institution, there is a possibility that patients may well have had a more positive approach to the questions asked. In laying out the study, there was an effort to draw a general frame within public relations applications and it was emphasized that public relations are a crucial phenomenon with regard to health care sector in today’s conditions. When preparing survey questions, the study made use of the scale used by Yalcın Kırdar in his study titled The Role of Public Relations Image Creating in Health Services: A Sample Patient Satisfaction Survey, which was published in 2007, in Health Marketing Quarterly. The survey form was conducted on citizens who were aged above 18. In this study, 6 criteria were formed to measure the satisfaction level of the patients who benefited from the health care service provided. These are: Hatice Hale Bozkurt The degree to which patient expectation is met with respect to the hospital’s capabilities of medical examination and health care facilities along with surrounding physical conditions (heating, illumination, landscape, car park, room service, medical equipment, number of beds, cleanliness, outer appearance etc.), Patient satisfaction with regard to doctors’ and nurses’ politeness, attitudes and behaviors in their conduct with patients and relatives, Patients’ standby time for treatment and perceptions on bureaucratic procedures, The degree to which the hospital management instilled the corporate culture concept of "us" instead of "I" through public relations activities, The sufficiency of the hospital’s arrangement of public health and information campaigns and the satisfactoriness of the guiding publications like brochures, pamphlets and press bulletins. Whether this hospital could be recommended to another patient who needs treatment. These benchmarks in the survey were then examined on the basis of three independent variables. These three independent variables were sex, monthly family income and number of hospital visits. •Sex: In two different categories as men and women. •Monthly family income: In 5 different categories which were: Less than 500$, 500$